Senior Ministers Urged Blair to Delay Employment Rights for Eastern and Central European Workers, Newly Released Files Reveal

In newly released files, it has been revealed that senior ministers, including Foreign Secretary Jack Straw, urged then-Prime Minister Tony Blair to delay granting employment rights to workers from Eastern and Central European countries following the European Union’s expansion in 2004.

As the EU prepared for its historic enlargement, which included the accession of Poland and other countries in the region, the UK was one of the few major EU members to offer these workers the opportunity to come and work in Britain immediately after 1 May 2004. While most of the larger EU states imposed a two-year delay, with only Italy undecided, the UK proposed a more open approach, which prompted concern among some ministers.

In February 2004, Jack Straw highlighted the UK’s unique position and warned of the potential risks associated with the immediate grant of employment rights. He noted that Britain’s stance could lead to a “very difficult situation” as the influx of workers could overwhelm local services and housing. In particular, Straw was concerned about the strain on social housing and warned that the UK could be forced to revoke the concession under the “least propitious circumstances.”

Straw’s concerns were shared by the then-deputy prime minister, John Prescott, who expressed his own reservations about the impact of large-scale migration. Prescott warned that many workers would likely settle in London and the South East, where overcrowded housing conditions could lead to a “very difficult situation.” He expressed deep concerns about social housing becoming overstretched, with workers possibly being forced to share already cramped accommodations in poor conditions.

The correspondence, which has now been made public through papers from the National Archives, offers an insightful glimpse into the internal debates surrounding the UK’s approach to the EU enlargement and its implications for social and economic policies. It shows the tension between maintaining a welcoming stance toward European workers and the practical challenges that the government anticipated in managing a potential surge in migration.

In the wake of these concerns, Straw proposed a six-month delay to the UK’s concession, a suggestion that was supported by Prescott, although the government ultimately went ahead with the decision to allow Eastern and Central European workers access to the UK labor market from May 2004.

The files, now 20 years old, continue to offer valuable insights into the decision-making process during a pivotal moment in the UK’s relationship with the European Union, highlighting the balancing act between economic opportunity and domestic concerns.

Blair Faces Tensions Over EU Worker Registration Scheme Amid Economic Concerns

Newly released documents shed light on the debate within Tony Blair’s government over the influx of workers from Eastern and Central Europe following the EU’s enlargement in 2004. As the UK braced for the expansion, which saw eight countries, including Poland, join the EU, tensions arose within the Cabinet about how to manage the migration of workers into the country.

David Blunkett, the then-Home Secretary, was a vocal advocate for allowing Eastern and Central European workers to enter the UK labor market without delay. He argued that the economy needed the “flexibility and productivity” that these workers could provide. In contrast, senior ministers, including Foreign Secretary Jack Straw and Deputy Prime Minister John Prescott, were concerned about the strain on housing and social services caused by the rapid influx of workers.

Despite the concerns, Blair’s government chose not to implement a work permit system but instead introduced a “workers registration scheme.” This scheme required nationals from the eight new EU member states, known as the A8 countries, to pay a fee and register their employment in specific jobs. Failure to comply with the scheme’s requirements would result in a substantial fine.

The government had initially estimated that only 13,000 new workers would arrive each year following the EU’s expansion. However, the numbers quickly exceeded expectations. According to the files, Kate Gross, a private secretary at No 10, informed Blair in July 2004 that 24,000 people had already registered under the scheme, although most had been living in the UK before May 1, 2004. Despite this, she reassured Blair that most of the new arrivals were young people, aged 18 to 34, and there was no evidence to suggest they were exploiting the benefits system.

Blair’s response to Gross’s briefing was revealing. He wrote “that is the key” next to the statement that the new arrivals were not abusing the system. This remark underscored the government’s strategy to manage the migration of workers without overwhelming public services, while still addressing the growing demand for labor in various sectors of the economy.

The documents also reveal the government’s ongoing monitoring of the registration scheme, with weekly updates sent to No 10 to track the numbers of A8 workers registering. Despite initial concerns about potential housing crises and public backlash, the scheme seemed to offer a solution to balance the economic benefits of an open labor market with the practical concerns of integration and social services.

Over the next decade, the number of Polish nationals in the UK soared from around 69,000 to approximately 853,000, a stark reminder of the unexpected scale of migration following the 2004 EU enlargement. The release of these files provides crucial insights into the decision-making process that shaped the UK’s approach to EU immigration during this period.

Flaws in Workers Registration Scheme Exposed as Influx of Eastern European Migrants Surpasses Projections

The UK’s workers registration scheme, introduced to manage the influx of workers from Eastern and Central Europe following the EU’s 2004 enlargement, faced significant challenges, according to newly released documents. While the scheme was designed to track and regulate the flow of workers, it became clear that it was not accurately capturing the full scope of migration, particularly from the self-employed sector.

Kate Gross, a private secretary at No 10, raised concerns early on about the validity of the data collected through the scheme. She noted that while the registration numbers were increasing, they were not in line with Home Office projections, which had estimated a much lower number of arrivals. Gross warned that if the trend continued, the number of new arrivals could reach 50,000 to 60,000 by May 2005, well beyond the government’s original estimate of 13,000 annually.

However, as the scheme progressed, the numbers started to drop. A briefing paper sent to No 10 suggested that the peak of registrations had passed, and the Immigration and Nationality Directorate was praised for swiftly implementing the scheme. Despite this optimism, the scheme’s flaws soon became apparent.

One major issue was that the self-employed, including many workers in the construction sector such as carpenters, were not required to register. This exclusion meant that the scheme failed to capture a significant portion of the migrant workforce. Additionally, enforcement of the registration requirements was lax, undermining the accuracy of the data collected.

The inadequacies of the scheme were dramatically exposed in late 2005, when the official records showed only 95 Polish plumbers registered across the entire UK. In stark contrast, a Daily Mail investigation found 95 Polish plumbers in London alone within 24 hours, highlighting the vast discrepancy between official statistics and the reality on the ground.

Over the following years, hundreds of thousands of workers from the A8 countries, particularly from Poland, moved to the UK. While many eventually returned to their home countries, the long-term impact of the migration was significant. The 2021 census reported 743,000 Polish-born individuals living in the UK, a testament to the scale of migration that occurred in the years following the EU’s expansion.

The release of these documents sheds light on the challenges faced by the government in managing the migration of workers under the EU’s enlargement, revealing both the successes and shortcomings of the workers registration scheme.

COURTESY: AFP News Agency

References

1. ^ “Largest Countries In Europe 2020”. worldpopulationreview.com. Archived from the original on 8 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
2. ^ Jump up to:^a b c “World Population Prospects 2022”. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
3. ^ Jump up to:^a b c “World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100” (XSLX) (“Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)”). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 17 July 2022.
4. ^ “GDP PPP, current prices”. International Monetary Fund. 2022. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 16 January 2022.
5. ^ “GDP Nominal, current prices”. International Monetary Fund. 2022. Archived from the original on 25 February 2017. Retrieved 16 January 2022.
6. ^ “Nominal GDP per capita”. International Monetary Fund. 2022. Archived from the original on 11 January 2020. Retrieved 16 January 2022.
7. ^ “Reports”. Human Development Reports. Archived from the original on 9 July 2012. Retrieved 21 July 2017.
8. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f g} Analysis (19 December 2011). “Global religious landscape” (PDF). Pewforum.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 23 March 2018. Retrieved 17 August 2012.
9. ^ “Demographia World Urban Areas” (PDF). Demographia. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 May 2018. Retrieved 28 October 2020.
10. ^ “Europe”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 March 2019. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
11. ^ “Europe: Human Geography | National Geographic Society”. education.nationalgeographic.org. Retrieved 4 February 2023.
12. ^ National Geographic Atlas of the World (7th ed.). Washington, DC: National Geographic. 1999. ISBN 978-0-7922-7528-2. “Europe” (pp. 68–69); “Asia” (pp. 90–91): “A commonly accepted division between Asia and Europe … is formed by the Ural Mountains, Ural River, Caspian Sea, Caucasus Mountains, and the Black Sea with its outlets, the Bosporus and Dardanelles.”
13. ^ Lewis & Wigen 1997, p. 226
14. ^ Covert, Kim (2011). Ancient Greece: Birthplace of Democracy. Capstone. p. 5. ISBN 978-1-4296-6831-6. Archived from the original on 27 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022. Ancient Greece is often called the cradle of western civilization. … Ideas from literature and science also have their roots in ancient Greece.
15. ^ Jump up to:^a b National Geographic, 534.
16. ^ Jump up to:^a b “History of the European Union 1945–59”. european-union.europa.eu. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 16 April 2022.
17. ^ “The European union—a federation or a confederation?” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
18. ^ “Qrakh. Thraciae Veteris Typus. Ex conatibus Geographicis Abrah. Ortelij. Cum Imp. Et Belgico privilegio decennali. 1585”. 15 February 1585.
19. ^ “Greek goddess Europa adorns new five-euro note”. BBC News. 10 January 2013. Retrieved 21 March 2024.
20. ^ Jump up to:^a b M. L. West; West, Morris (2007). Indo-European Poetry and Myth. OUP Oxford. p. 185. ISBN 978-0-19-928075-9. Archived from the original on 22 January 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
21. ^ FitzRoy, Charles (2015). The Rape of Europa: The Intriguing History of Titian’s Masterpiece. Bloomsbury Publishing. pp. 52–. ISBN 978-1-4081-9211-5. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
22. ^ Astour, Michael C. (1967). Hellenosemitica: An Ethnic and Cultural Study in West Semitic Impact on Mycenaean Greece. Brill Archive. p. 128. GGKEY:G19ZZ3TSL38. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
23. ^ Jump up to:^a b “Europe – Origin and meaning of the name Europe by Online Etymology Dictionary”. www.etymonline.com. Archived from the original on 17 September 2017. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
24. ^ Jump up to:^a b Beekes, Robert (2004). “Kadmos and Europa, and the Phoenicians” (PDF). Kadmos. 43 (1): 168–69. doi:10.1515/kadm.43.1.167. ISSN 0022-7498. S2CID 162196643. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 November 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
25. ^ M. L. West (1997). The east face of Helicon: west Asiatic elements in Greek poetry and myth. Oxford: Clarendon Press. p. 451. ISBN 978-0-19-815221-7..
26. ^ Davidson, Roderic H. (1960). “Where is the Middle East?”. Foreign Affairs. 38 (4): 665–675. doi:10.2307/20029452. JSTOR 20029452. S2CID 157454140.
27. ^ Jump up to:^a b “Europe”. Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopaedia 2007. Archived from the original on 28 October 2009. Retrieved 27 December 2007.
28. ^ “Cyprus”. The World Factbook. Central Intelligence Agency. 7 August 2024. Retrieved 13 August 2024.
29. ^ Falconer, William; Falconer, Thomas. Dissertation on St. Paul’s Voyage Archived 2017-03-27 at the Wayback Machine, BiblioLife (BiblioBazaar), 1872. (1817.), p. 50, ISBN 1-113-68809-2 These islands Pliny, as well as Strabo and Ptolemy, included in the African sea
30. ^ “Europe – Noun”. Princeton University. Archived from the original on 15 July 2014. Retrieved 9 June 2008.
31. ^ Histories 4.38. C.f. James Rennell, The geographical system of Herodotus examined and explained, Volume 1, Rivington 1830, p. 244
32. ^ Herodotus, 4:45
33. ^ Strabo Geography 11.1
34. ^ Franxman, Thomas W. (1979). Genesis and the Jewish antiquities of Flavius Josephus. Pontificium Institutum Biblicum. pp. 101–102. ISBN 978-88-7653-335-8.
35. ^ W. Theiler, Posidonios. Die Fragmente, vol. 1. Berlin: De Gruyter, 1982, fragm. 47a.
36. ^ I. G. Kidd (ed.), Posidonius: The commentary, Cambridge University Press, 2004, ISBN 978-0-521-60443-7, p. 738 Archived 1 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine.
37. ^ Geographia 7.5.6 (ed. Nobbe 1845, vol. 2 Archived 24 May 2020 at the Wayback Machine, p. 178) Καὶ τῇ Εὐρώπῃ δὲ συνάπτει διὰ τοῦ μεταξὺ αὐχένος τῆς τε Μαιώτιδος λίμνης καὶ τοῦ Σαρματικοῦ Ὠκεανοῦ ἐπὶ τῆς διαβάσεως τοῦ Τανάϊδος ποταμοῦ. “And [Asia] is connected to Europe by the land-strait between Lake Maiotis and the Sarmatian Ocean where the river Tanais crosses through.”
38. ^ Jump up to:^a b J. G. A. Pocock (2002). “Some Europes in Their History”. In Pagden, Anthony (ed.). The Idea of Europe From Antiquity to the European Union. Cambridge University Press. pp. 57–61. doi:10.1017/CBO9780511496813.003. ISBN 978-0511496813. Archived from the original on 23 March 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
39. ^ Norman F. Cantor, The Civilization of the Middle Ages, 1993, “”Culture and Society in the First Europe”, pp185ff.
40. ^ Dawson, Christopher; Olsen, Glenn (1961). Crisis in Western Education (reprint ed.). CUA Press. p. 108. ISBN 978-0-8132-1683-6.
41. ^ Noted by Cantor, 1993:181.
42. ^ J. G. A. Pocock. “Western historiography and the problem of “Western” history” (PDF). United Nations. pp. 5–6. Archived (PDF) from the original on 13 June 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
43. ^ Philipp Johann von Strahlenberg (1730). Das Nord-und Ostliche Theil von Europa und Asia (in German). p. 106.
44. ^ Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford University Press. p. 8. ISBN 978-0-19-820171-7. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
45. ^ “Boundary of Europe and Asia along Urals” (in Russian). Archived from the original on 8 January 2012.
46. ^ Peter Simon Pallas, Journey through various provinces of the Russian Empire, vol. 3 (1773)
47. ^ Douglas W. Freshfield, “Journey in the Caucasus Archived 2020-08-01 at the Wayback Machine“, Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, Volumes 13–14, 1869. Cited as de facto convention by Baron von Haxthausen, Transcaucasia (1854); review Dublin University Magazine
48. ^ “Europe”^{[dead link]}, Brockhaus and Efron Encyclopedic Dictionary, 1906
49. ^ “Do we live in Europe or in Asia?” (in Russian). Archived from the original on 18 February 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
50. ^ Orlenok V. (1998). “Physical Geography” (in Russian). Archived from the original on 16 October 2011.
51. ^ Tutin, T.G.; Heywood, V.H.; Burges, N.A.; Valentine, D.H.; Walters, S.M.; Webb, D.A. (1964). Flora Europaea, Volume 1: Lycopodiaceae to Platanaceae. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-06661-7.
52. ^ Tutin, Thomas Gaskell (1993). Flora Europaea, Volume 1: Psilotaceae to Platanaceae (2nd ed.). Cambridge New York Melbourne [etc.]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-41007-6.
53. ^ E.M. Moores, R.W. Fairbridge, Encyclopedia of European and Asian regional geology, Springer, 1997, ISBN 978-0-412-74040-4, p. 34: “most Soviet geographers took the watershed of the Main Range of the Greater Caucasus as the boundary between Europe and Asia.”
54. ^ Lewis & Wigen (1997), p. ?.
55. ^ Jump up to:^a b Posth; Yu; Ghalichi (2023). “Palaeogenomics of Upper Palaeolithic to Neolithic European hunter-gatherers”. Nature. 615 (2 March 2023): 117–126. Bibcode:2023Natur.615..117P. doi:10.1038/s41586-023-05726-0. PMC 9977688. PMID 36859578.
56. ^ “Quaternary Period”. National Geographic. 6 January 2017. Archived from the original on 29 November 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
57. ^ “How long can we expect the present Interglacial period to last?”. U.S. Department of the Interior. Archived from the original on 26 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
58. ^ A. Vekua; D. Lordkipanidze; G.P. Rightmire; J. Agusti; R. Ferring; G. Maisuradze; et al. (2002). “A new skull of early Homo from Dmanisi, Georgia”. Science. 297 (5578): 85–89. Bibcode:2002Sci…297…85V. doi:10.1126/science.1072953. PMID 12098694. S2CID 32726786.
59. ^ The million year old tooth from Archived 22 September 2021 at the Wayback Machine Atapuerca, Spain, found in June 2007
60. ^ Strickland, Ashley (10 October 2018). “Bones reveal Neanderthal child was eaten by a giant bird”. CNN. Archived from the original on 7 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
61. ^ “Neanderthals Died Out 10,000 Years Earlier Than Thought, With Help From Modern Humans”. National Geographic. 21 August 2014. Archived from the original on 18 February 2021.
62. ^ National Geographic, 21.
63. ^ Fleming, Nic (2022). “My work digging up the shelters of our ancestors”. Nature. 606 (7916): 1035. Bibcode:2022Natur.606.1035F. doi:10.1038/d41586-022-01593-3. PMID 35676354. S2CID 249520231.
64. ^ Fu, Qiaomei; et al. (23 October 2014). “The genome sequence of a 45,000-year-old modern human from western Siberia”. Nature. 514 (7523): 445–449. Bibcode:2014Natur.514..445F. doi:10.1038/nature13810. hdl:10550/42071. PMC 4753769. PMID 25341783.
65. ^ 42.7–41.5 ka (1σ CI). Douka, Katerina; et al. (2012). “A new chronostratigraphic framework for the Upper Palaeolithic of Riparo Mochi (Italy)”. Journal of Human Evolution. 62 (2): 286–299. Bibcode:2012JHumE..62..286D. doi:10.1016/j.jhevol.2011.11.009. PMID 22189428.
66. ^ Borza, E.N. (1992). In the Shadow of Olympus: The Emergence of Macedon. Princeton University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-691-00880-6. Archived from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
67. ^ Scarre, Chris (1996). Fagan, Brian M. (ed.). The Oxford Companion to Archaeology. Oxford University Press. pp. 215–216. ISBN 978-0-19-507618-9.
68. ^ Atkinson, R.J.C., Stonehenge (Penguin Books, 1956)
69. ^ Peregrine, Peter Neal; Ember, Melvin, eds. (2001). “European Megalithic”. Encyclopedia of Prehistory. Vol. 4. Springer. pp. 157–184. ISBN 978-0-306-46258-0.
70. ^ Jump up to:^a b Haak, Wolfgang; Lazaridis, Iosif; Patterson, Nick; Rohland, Nadin; Mallick, Swapan; Llamas, Bastien; Brandt, Guido; Nordenfelt, Susanne; Harney, Eadaoin; Stewardson, Kristin; Fu, Qiaomei (11 June 2015). “Massive migration from the steppe was a source for Indo-European languages in Europe”. Nature. 522 (7555): 207–211. arXiv:1502.02783. Bibcode:2015Natur.522..207H. doi:10.1038/nature14317. ISSN 0028-0836. PMC 5048219. PMID 25731166.
71. ^ “When the First Farmers Arrived in Europe, Inequality Evolved”. Scientific American. 1 July 2020.
72. ^ Gibbons, Ann (21 February 2017). “Thousands of horsemen may have swept into Bronze Age Europe, transforming the local population”. Science.
73. ^ “Ancient Greece”. British Museum. Archived from the original on 15 June 2012.
74. ^ “Periods – School of Archaeology”. University of Oxford. Archived from the original on 19 November 2018. Retrieved 25 December 2018.
75. ^ Short, John R. (1987). An Introduction to Urban Geography. Routledge. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-7102-0372-4. Archived from the original on 20 March 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
76. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Daly, Jonathan (2013). The Rise of Western Power: A Comparative History of Western Civilization. A&C Black. pp. 7–9. ISBN 978-1-4411-1851-6. Archived from the original on 28 April 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
77. ^ Dunn, John (1994). Democracy: the unfinished journey 508 BCE – 1993 CE. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-827934-1.
78. ^ National Geographic, 76.
79. ^ Heath, Thomas Little (1981). A History of Greek Mathematics, Volume I. Dover Publications. ISBN 978-0-486-24073-2.
80. ^ Heath, Thomas Little (1981). A History of Greek Mathematics, Volume II. Dover publications. ISBN 978-0-486-24074-9.
81. ^ Pedersen, Olaf. Early Physics and Astronomy: A Historical Introduction. 2nd edition. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1993.
82. ^ Strauss, Barry (2005). The Battle of Salamis: The Naval Encounter That Saved Greece – and Western Civilization. Simon and Schuster. pp. 1–11. ISBN 978-0-7432-7453-1. Archived from the original on 23 June 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
83. ^ Jump up to:^a b McEvedy, Colin (1961). The Penguin Atlas of Medieval History. Penguin Books.
84. ^ National Geographic, 123.
85. ^ Foster, Sally M., Picts, Gaels, and Scots: Early Historic Scotland. Batsford, London, 2004. ISBN 0-7134-8874-3
86. ^ Williams, Stephen; Friell, Gerard (2005). Theodosius: The Empire at Bay. Routledge. p. 105. ISBN 978-1-135-78262-7. Archived from the original on 30 May 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
87. ^ Hadas, Moses (1950). A History of Greek Literature. Columbia University Press. pp. 273, 327. ISBN 978-0-231-01767-1. Archived from the original on 21 May 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
88. ^ Laiou & Morisson 2007, pp. 130–131; Pounds 1979, p. 124.
89. ^ Journal of the History of Ideas, Vol. 4, No. 1. (January 1943), pp. 69–74.
90. ^ Norman F. Cantor, The Medieval World 300 to 1300.
91. ^ National Geographic, 135.
92. ^ Hunter, Shireen; et al. (2004). Islam in Russia: The Politics of Identity and Security. M.E. Sharpe. p. 3. (..) It is difficult to establish exactly when Islam first appeared in Russia because the lands that Islam penetrated early in its expansion were not part of Russia at the time, but were later incorporated into the expanding Russian Empire. Islam reached the Caucasus region in the middle of the seventh century as part of the Arab conquest of the Iranian Sassanian Empire.
93. ^ Kennedy, Hugh (1995). “The Muslims in Europe”. In McKitterick, Rosamund, The New Cambridge Medieval History: c. 500 – c. 700, pp. 249–272. Cambridge University Press. 052136292X.
94. ^ National Geographic, 143–145.
95. ^ National Geographic, 162.
96. ^ National Geographic, 166.
97. ^ Bulliet et al. 2011, p. 250.
98. ^ Brown, Anatolios & Palmer 2009, p. 66.
99. ^ Gerald Mako, “The Islamization of the Volga Bulghars: A Question Reconsidered”, Archivum Eurasiae Medii Aevi 18, 2011, 199–223.
100. ^ Marc’Antonio Bragadin, Storia delle Repubbliche marinare, Odoya, Bologna 2010, 240 pp., ISBN 978-88-6288-082-4
101. ^ G. Benvenuti, Le Repubbliche Marinare. Amalfi, Pisa, Genova, Venezia, Newton & Compton editori, Roma 1989
102. ^ Jump up to:^a b National Geographic, 158.
103. ^ National Geographic, 186.
104. ^ National Geographic, 192.
105. ^ National Geographic, 199.
106. ^ Laiou & Morisson 2007, pp. 130–131; Pounds 1979, p. 124.
107. ^ Duiker, William J.; Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2010). The Essential World History. Cengage Learning. p. 330. ISBN 978-0-495-90227-0. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 20 January 2013. The Byzantine Empire also interacted with the world of Islam to its east and the new European civilization of the west. Both interactions proved costly and ultimately fatal.
108. ^ Findlay, Ronald (2006). Eli Heckscher, International Trade, And Economic History. MIT Press. pp. 178–179. ISBN 978-0-262-06251-0. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 20 January 2013. These Christian allies did not accept the authority of Byzantium, and the Fourth Crusade that sacked Constantinople and established the so-called Latin Empire that lasted until 1261 was a fatal wound from which the empire never recovered until its fall at the hands of the Ottoman Turks in 1453 (Queller and Madden 1997).
109. ^ Browning, Robert (1992). The Byzantine Empire (Revised ed.). CUA Press. p. 253. ISBN 978-0-8132-0754-4. Retrieved 20 January 2013. And though the final blow was struck by the Ottoman Turks, it can plausibly be argued that the fatal injury was inflicted by the Latin crusaders in 1204.
110. ^ Byfield, Ted (2008). A Glorious Disaster: A.D. 1100 to 1300: The Crusades: Blood, Valor, Iniquity, Reason, Faith. Christian History Project. p. 136. ISBN 978-0-9689873-7-7. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 20 January 2013. continue to stand for another 250 before ultimately falling to the Muslim Turks, but it had been irrevocably weakened by the Fourth Crusade.
111. ^ Golna, Cornelia (2004). City of Man’s Desire: A Novel of Constantinople. Go-Bos Press. p. 424. ISBN 978-90-804114-4-9. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 20 January 2013. 1204 The Fourth Crusade sacks Constantinople, destroying and pillaging many of its treasures, fatally weakening the empire both economically and militarily
112. ^ Powell, John (2001). Magill’s Guide to Military History: A-Cor. Salem Press. ISBN 978-0-89356-015-7. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 20 January 2013. However, the fifty-seven years of plunder that followed made the Byzantine Empire, even when it retook the capital in 1261, genuinely weak. Beginning in 1222, the empire was further weakened by a civil war that lasted until 1355. … When the Ottomans overran their lands and besieged Constantinople in 1453, sheer poverty and weakness were the causes of the capital city’s final fall.
113. ^ Irvin, Dale T. (2002). History of the World Christian Movement: Volume 1: Earliest Christianity To 1453. Continuum International Publishing Group. p. 405. ISBN 978-0-567-08866-6. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 20 January 2013. Not only did the fourth crusade further harden the resentments Greek-speaking Christians felt toward the Latin West, but it further weakened the empire of Constantinople, many say fatally so. After the restoration of Greek imperial rule the city survived as the capital of Byzantium for another two centuries, but it never fully recovered.
114. ^ Frucht, Richard C. (2004). Eastern Europe: An Introduction to the People, Lands, and Culture. ABC-CLIO. p. 856. ISBN 978-1-57607-800-6. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 20 January 2013. Although the empire was revived, the events of 1204 had so weakened Byzantium that it was no longer a great power.
115. ^ Duiker, William J.; Spielvogel, Jackson J. (2010). The Essential World History. Cengage Learning. p. 386. ISBN 978-0-495-90227-0. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 20 January 2013. Later they established themselves in the Anatolian peninsula at the expense of the Byzantine Empire. … The Byzantines, however, had been severely weakened by the sack of Constantinople in the Fourth Crusade (in 1204) and the Western occupation of much of the empire for the next half century.
116. ^ National Geographic, 211.
117. ^ Peters, Ralph (2006). New Glory: Expanding America’s Global Supremacy. Sentinel. ISBN 978-1-59523-030-0. Retrieved 20 January 2013. Western Christians, not Muslims, fatally crippled Byzantine power and opened Islam’s path into the West.
118. ^ Chronicles. Rockford Institute. 2005. Archived from the original on 11 May 2013. Retrieved 20 January 2013. two-and-a-half centuries to recover from the Fourth Crusade before the Ottomans finally took Constantinople in 1453, … They fatally wounded Byzantium, which was the main cause of its weakened condition when the Muslim onslaught came. Even on the eve of its final collapse, the precondition for any Western help was submission in Florence.
119. ^ Klyuchevsky, Vasily (1987). The course of the Russian history. “Myslʹ. ISBN 978-5-244-00072-6. Archived from the original on 24 October 2007. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
120. ^ “The Destruction of Kyiv”. University of Toronto. Archived from the original on 27 April 2011. Retrieved 10 June 2008.
121. ^ “Golden Horde Archived 29 May 2008 at the Wayback Machine“, in Encyclopædia Britannica, 2007.
122. ^ “Khanate of the Golden Horde (Kipchak)”. Alamo Community Colleges. Archived from the original on 7 June 2008. Retrieved 10 June 2008.
123. ^ Spinei, Victor. The Romanians and the Turkic Nomads North of the Danube Delta from the Tenth to the Mid-Thirteenth Century, Brill, 2009, ISBN 978-90-04-17536-5
124. ^ The Late Middle Ages Archived 2 November 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Oglethorpe University.
125. ^ Baumgartner, Frederic J. France in the Sixteenth Century. London: Macmillan Publishers, 1995. ISBN 0-333-62088-7.
126. ^ Don O’Reilly. “Hundred Years’ War: Joan of Arc and the Siege of Orléans“. TheHistoryNet.com. Archived 9 November 2006 at the Wayback Machine
127. ^ Poor studies will always be with us^{[dead link]}. By James Bartholomew. Telegraph. 7 August. 2004.
128. ^ Famine Archived 7 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopædia Britannica.
129. ^ “Plague: The Black Death”. National Geographic. Archived from the original on 16 February 2012. Retrieved 1 April 2012.
130. ^ National Geographic, 223.
131. ^ “Epidemics of the Past: Bubonic Plague – Infoplease.com”. Infoplease.com. Archived from the original on 21 October 2008. Retrieved 3 November 2008.
132. ^ Revill, Jo (16 May 2004). “Black Death blamed on man, not rats | UK news | The Observer”. The Observer. London. Archived from the original on 12 February 2014. Retrieved 3 November 2008.
133. ^ Jump up to:^a b Peter Barrett (2004), Science and Theology Since Copernicus: The Search for Understanding Archived 22 April 2022 at the Wayback Machine, pp. 14–18, Continuum, ISBN 0-567-08969-X
134. ^ Weiss, Roberto (1969) The Renaissance Discovery of Classical Antiquity, ISBN 1-59740-150-1
135. ^ Burckhardt, Jacob (1990) [1878]. The Civilisation of the Renaissance in Italy. Translated by Middlemore, S. G. C. London: Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-044534-3.
136. ^ National Geographic, 254.
137. ^ Jensen, De Lamar (1992), Renaissance Europe, ISBN 0-395-88947-2
138. ^ Levey, Michael (1967). Early Renaissance. Penguin Books.
139. ^ National Geographic, 292.
140. ^ Levey, Michael (1971). High Renaissance. Penguin.
141. ^ National Geographic, 193.
142. ^ Roberts, John Morris (1997). Penguin History of Europe. Penguin. ISBN 978-0-14-026561-3.
143. ^ National Geographic, 296.
144. ^ National Geographic, 338.
145. ^ Elliott p. 333
146. ^ Morris, Terence Alan (1998). Europe and England in the sixteenth century. Routledge, p. 335. ISBN 0-415-15041-8
147. ^ Rowse, A. L. (1969). Tudor Cornwall: portrait of a society. C. Scribner, p. 400
148. ^ “One decisive action might have forced Philip II to the negotiating table and avoided fourteen years of continuing warfare. Instead the King was able to use the brief respite to rebuild his naval forces and by the end of 1589 Spain once again had an Atlantic fleet strong enough to escort the American treasure ships home.” The Mariner’s Mirror, Volumes 76–77. Society for Nautical Research., 1990
149. ^ Kamen, Henry. Spain’s Road to Empire: The Making of a World Power, 1492–1763. p. 221.
150. ^ National Geographic, 256–257.
151. ^ “European History/Religious Wars in Europe – Wikibooks, open books for an open world”. en.wikibooks.org. Archived from the original on 31 May 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
152. ^ Humphreys, Kenneth. Jesus Never Existed: An Introduction to the Ultimate Heresy.
153. ^ History of Europe – Demographics Archived 1 January 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopædia Britannica.
154. ^ National Geographic, 269.
155. ^ Virginia Aksan, Ottoman Wars, 1700–1860: An Empire Besieged, (Pearson Education Limited, 2007), 28.
156. ^ “The Seventeenth-Century Decline”. The Library of Iberian resources online. Archived from the original on 27 March 2017. Retrieved 13 August 2008.
157. ^ “Food, Famine And Fertilisers Archived 2022-04-17 at the Wayback Machine“. Seshadri Kannan (2009). APH Publishing. p. 51. ISBN 81-313-0356-X
158. ^ Frost, Robert I. (2004). After the Deluge; Poland-Lithuania and the Second Northern War, 1655–1660. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0521544023. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
159. ^ Lukowski, Jerzy (2014). The Partitions of Poland 1772, 1793, 1795. New York: Routledge. ISBN 978-1317886945. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
160. ^ W. G. Clarence-Smith (2006). “Islam And The Abolition Of Slavery Archived 2016-04-29 at the Wayback Machine“. Oxford University Press. p. 13. ISBN 0-19-522151-6 – “Lands to the north of the Black Sea probably yielded the most slaves to the Ottomans from 1450. A compilation of estimates indicates that Crimean Tartars seized about 1,750,000 Ukrainians, Poles, and Russians from 1468 to 1694.”
161. ^ Hunt, Shelby D. (2003). Controversy in marketing theory: for reason, realism, truth, and objectivity. M. E. Sharpe. p. 18. ISBN 978-0-7656-0932-8. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
162. ^ Hatch, Robert A. “Scientific Revolution: Chronological Timeline: Copernicus to Newton”. Archived from the original on 23 July 2013. Retrieved 24 March 2023.
163. ^ Gipson, Lawrence Henry (1950). “The American Revolution as an Aftermath of the Great War for the Empire, 1754–1763”. Political Science Quarterly. 65 (1): 86–104. doi:10.2307/2144276. JSTOR 2144276.
164. ^ Goldie, Mark; Wokler, Robert (2006). The Cambridge History of Eighteenth-Century Political Thought. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-37422-4.
165. ^ Cassirer, Ernst (1979). The Philosophy of the Enlightenment. Princeton University Press. ISBN 978-0-691-01963-5.
166. ^ National Geographic, 255.
167. ^ Schama, Simon (1989). Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution. Knopf. ISBN 978-0-394-55948-3.
168. ^ National Geographic, 360.
169. ^ McEvedy, Colin (1972). The Penguin Atlas of Modern History. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-051153-6.
170. ^ Lyons, Martyn (1994). Napoleon Bonaparte and the legacy of the French Revolution. St. Martin’s Press. ISBN 978-0-312-12123-5.
171. ^ Grab, Alexander (2003). Napoleon and the Transformation of Europe (European History in Perspective). Palgrave MacMillan. ISBN 978-0-333-68275-3.
172. ^ National Geographic, 350.
173. ^ National Geographic, 367.
174. ^ National Geographic, 371–373.
175. ^ Davies, Norman (1996). Europe: A History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-820171-7.
176. ^ [1] Archived 26 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Ottoman Empire – 19th century, Historyworld
177. ^ Trevelyan, George Macaulay (1988). A shortened history of England. Penguin Books. ISBN 978-0-14-010241-3.
178. ^ Webb, Sidney (1976). History of Trade Unionism. AMS Press. ISBN 978-0-404-06885-1.
179. ^ Slavery Archived 16 October 2014 at the Wayback Machine, Historical survey – Ways of ending slavery, Encyclopædia Britannica
180. ^ Trevelyan, George Macaulay (1942). English Social History. Longmans, Green.
181. ^ Modernisation – Population Change Archived 30 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopædia Britannica.
182. ^ “The Irish Famine Archived 2019-11-09 at the Wayback Machine“. BBC – History.
183. ^ The Atlantic: Can the US afford immigration? Archived 4 July 2010 at the Wayback Machine. Migration News. December 1996.
184. ^ Maddison (27 July 2016). “Growth of World Population, GDP and GDP Per Capita before 1820” (PDF). University of Groningen. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 February 2021. Retrieved 12 June 2024.
185. ^ World Population Growth, 1950–2050. Population Reference Bureau. Archived 22 July 2013 at the Wayback Machine
186. ^ “Assassin Gavrilo Princip gets a statue in Sarajevo”. Prague Post. 28 June 2014. Archived from the original on 10 July 2014. Retrieved 11 July 2014.
187. ^ National Geographic, 407.
188. ^ National Geographic, 440.
189. ^ “The Treaty of Versailles and its Consequences”. James Atkinson. Archived from the original on 12 May 2008. Retrieved 10 June 2008.
190. ^ National Geographic, 480.
191. ^ Heinrich August Winkler (2015). “The Struggle for Independence: Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania and Finland”. The Age of Catastrophe. Yale University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0300204896.
192. ^ National Geographic, 443.
193. ^ Harrison, Mark (2002). Accounting for War: Soviet Production, Employment, and the Defence Burden, 1940–1945. Cambridge University Press. p. 167. ISBN 978-0-521-89424-1. Archived from the original on 17 June 2020. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
194. ^ “Legacy of famine divides Ukraine Archived 2006-11-27 at the Wayback Machine“. BBC News. 24 November 2006.
195. ^ Gleason, Abbott (2009). A companion to Russian history. Wiley-Blackwell. p. 373. ISBN 978-1-4051-3560-3. Archived from the original on 5 September 2015. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
196. ^ Hosking, Geoffrey A. (2001). Russia and the Russians: a history. Harvard University Press. p. 469. ISBN 978-0-674-00473-3.
197. ^ Loti, Pierre (30 June 1918). “Fourth of Serbia’s Population Dead”. Los Angeles Times. p. 49. Retrieved 15 January 2023 – via Newspapers.com.
198. ^ “Asserts Serbians Face Extinction; Their Plight in Occupied Districts Worse Than Belgians’, Says Labor Envoy” (PDF). The New York Times. Washington. p. 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on 15 March 2020. Retrieved 15 January 2023.
199. ^ “Serbia Restored” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 September 2018. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
200. ^ “Serbia and Austria” (PDF). New York Times. 28 July 1918. Archived (PDF) from the original on 22 April 2021. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
201. ^ “Appeals to Americans to pray for Serbians” (PDF). New York Times. 27 July 1918. Archived (PDF) from the original on 16 September 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
202. ^ Jump up to:^a b Hobsbawm, Eric (1995). The Age of Extremes: A history of the world, 1914–1991. Vintage. ISBN 978-0-679-73005-7.
203. ^ National Geographic, 438.
204. ^ “Adolf Hitler: Rise of Power, Impact & Death”. History.com. Archived from the original on 3 October 2018. Retrieved 26 July 2020.
205. ^ National Geographic, 465.
206. ^ Taylor, A. J. P. (1996). The Origins of the Second World War. Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-82947-0.
207. ^ Massari, Ivano (18 August 2015). “The Winter War – When the Finns Humiliated the Russians”. War History Online. Archived from the original on 19 December 2021. Retrieved 19 December 2021.
208. ^ National Geographic, 510.
209. ^ National Geographic, 532.
210. ^ National Geographic, 511.
211. ^ National Geographic, 519.
212. ^ National Geographic, 439.
213. ^ “Europe honours war dead on VE Day Archived 2018-03-16 at the Wayback Machine“. BBC News. 9 May 2005.
214. ^ Niewyk, Donald L. and Nicosia, Francis R. The Columbia Guide to the Holocaust Archived 21 May 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Columbia University Press, 2000, pp. 45–52.
215. ^ “Leaders mourn Soviet wartime dead”. BBC News. 9 May 2005. Archived from the original on 22 December 2019. Retrieved 4 January 2010.
216. ^ The State of The World’s Refugees 2000: Fifty Years of Humanitarian Action. Oxford University Press. 2000. p. 13. Archived from the original on 23 April 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
217. ^ Bundy, Colin (2016). “Migrants, refugees, history and precedents | Forced Migration Review”. www.fmreview.org. Archived from the original on 8 March 2022. Retrieved 9 March 2022.
218. ^ “Refugees: Save Us! Save Us!“. Time. 9 July 1979.
219. ^ Schechtman, Joseph B. (1953). “Postwar Population Transfers in Europe: A Survey”. The Review of Politics. 15 (2): 151–178. doi:10.1017/s0034670500008081. JSTOR 1405220. S2CID 144307581.
220. ^ National Geographic, 530.
221. ^ Jessica Caus “Am Checkpoint Charlie lebt der Kalte Krieg” In: Die Welt 4 August 2015.
222. ^ Karlo Ruzicic-Kessler “Togliatti, Tito and the Shadow of Moscow 1944/45–1948: Post-War Territorial Disputes and the Communist World”, In: Journal of European Integration History, (2/2014).
223. ^ Christian Jennings “Flashpoint Trieste: The First Battle of the Cold War”, (2017), pp 244.
224. ^ The European flag Archived 14 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Council of Europe. Retrieved 27 October 2016.
225. ^ Thomas Roser: DDR-Massenflucht: Ein Picknick hebt die Welt aus den Angeln (German – Mass exodus of the GDR: A picnic clears the world) In: Die Presse 16 August 2018.
226. ^ Der 19. August 1989 war ein Test für Gorbatschows” (German – August 19, 1989 was a test for Gorbachev), In: FAZ 19 August 2009.
227. ^ Michael Frank: Paneuropäisches Picknick – Mit dem Picknickkorb in die Freiheit (German: Pan-European picnic – With the picnic basket to freedom), in: Süddeutsche Zeitung 17 May 2010.
228. ^ Andreas Rödder, Deutschland einig Vaterland – Die Geschichte der Wiedervereinigung (2009).
229. ^ Padraic Kenney “A Carnival of Revolution: Central Europe 1989” (2002) pp 109.
230. ^ Michael Gehler “Der alte und der neue Kalte Krieg in Europa” In: Die Presse 19.11.2015.
231. ^ Robert Stradling “Teaching 20th-century European history” (2003), pp 61.
232. ^ “Russia Quits Europe’s Rule of Law Body, Sparking Questions Over Death Penalty”. The Moscow Times. 10 March 2022. Archived from the original on 12 March 2022. Retrieved 12 March 2022.
233. ^ National Geographic, 536.
234. ^ National Geographic, 537.
235. ^ National Geographic, 535.
236. ^ “UK leaves the European Union”. BBC News. 1 February 2020. Archived from the original on 14 March 2020. Retrieved 16 July 2020.
237. ^ “Ukrainian exodus could be Europe’s biggest refugee crisis since World War II”. El País. 3 March 2022. Archived from the original on 5 April 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
238. ^ “Protecting Ukrainian refugees: What can we learn from the response to Kosovo in the 90s?”. British Future. 7 March 2022. Archived from the original on 7 March 2022. Retrieved 29 March 2022.
239. ^ Cuper, Simon (23 May 2014). “Why Europe works”. ft.com. Archived from the original on 22 August 2016. Retrieved 28 May 2014.
240. ^ Europe Archived 3 May 2015 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopædia Britannica.
241. ^ Jump up to:^a b “European Climate”. World Book. World Book, Inc. Archived from the original on 9 November 2006. Retrieved 16 June 2008.
242. ^ Josef Wasmayer “Wetter- und Meereskunde der Adria” (1976), pp 5.
243. ^ Beck, Hylke E.; Zimmermann, Niklaus E.; McVicar, Tim R.; Vergopolan, Noemi; Berg, Alexis; Wood, Eric F. (30 October 2018). “Present and future Köppen-Geiger climate classification maps at 1-km resolution”. Scientific Data. 5: 180214. Bibcode:2018NatSD…580214B. doi:10.1038/sdata.2018.214. PMC 6207062. PMID 30375988.
244. ^ Climate tables of the articles, where the precise sources can be found
245. ^ Kayser-Bril, Nicolas (24 September 2018). “Europe is getting warmer, and it’s not looking like it’s going to cool down anytime soon”. EDJNet. Retrieved 25 September 2018.
246. ^ “Climate change impacts scar Europe, but increase in renewables signals hope for future”. public.wmo.int. 14 June 2023. Retrieved 9 July 2023.
247. ^ “Global and European temperatures — Climate-ADAPT”. climate-adapt.eea.europa.eu. Retrieved 12 September 2021.
248. ^ Carter, J.G. 2011, “Climate change adaptation in European cities”, Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability, vol. 3, no. 3, pp. 193-198
249. ^ Abnett, Kate (21 April 2020). “EU climate chief sees green strings for car scrappage schemes”. Reuters. Retrieved 6 October 2020.
250. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d “Europe”. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2007. Archived from the original on 4 December 2007. Retrieved 10 June 2008.
251. ^ “Geology map of Europe”. University of Southampton. 1967. Archived from the original on 11 August 2019. Retrieved 9 June 2008.
252. ^ “History and geography”. Save America’s Forest Funds. Archived from the original on 6 October 2008. Retrieved 9 June 2008.
253. ^ “State of Europe’s Forests 2007: The MCPFE report on sustainable forest management in Europe” (PDF). EFI Euroforest Portal. p. 182. Archived from the original (PDF) on 24 June 2008. Retrieved 9 June 2008.
254. ^ “European bison, Wisent”. Archived from the original on 26 December 2016. Retrieved 19 January 2017.
255. ^ Walker, Matt (4 August 2009). “European bison on ‘genetic brink'”. BBC News. Archived from the original on 6 July 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
256. ^ Bryant, S.; Thomas, C.; Bale, J. (1997). “Nettle-feeding nymphalid butterflies: temperature, development and distribution”. Ecological Entomology. 22 (4): 390–398. Bibcode:1997EcoEn..22..390B. doi:10.1046/j.1365-2311.1997.00082.x. S2CID 84143178.
257. ^ not counting the microstate of Vatican City
258. ^ Democracy Report 2024, Varieties of Democracy
259. ^ “Member States of the European Union”. Europa. Retrieved 29 June 2024.
260. ^ Fineman, Josh (15 September 2009). “Bloomberg.com”. Bloomberg.com. Archived from the original on 28 January 2015. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
261. ^ “Global Wealth Stages a Strong Comeback”. Pr-inside.com. 10 June 2010. Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 23 August 2010.
262. ^ Global shipping and logistic chain reshaped as China’s Belt and Road dreams take off in Hellenic Shipping News, 4. December 2018; Wolf D. Hartmann, Wolfgang Maennig, Run Wang: Chinas neue Seidenstraße. (2017), p 59; Jacob Franks “The Blu Banana – the True Heart of Europe” In: Big Think Edge, 31 December 2014; Zacharias Zacharakis: Chinas Anker in Europa in: Die Zeit 8. May 2018; Harry de Wilt: Is One Belt, One Road a China crisis for North Sea main ports? in World Cargo News, 17 December 2019; Hospers, Gert-Jan “Beyond the blue banana? Structural change in Europe’s geo-economy.” 2002
263. ^ “The CIA World Factbook – GDP (PPP)”. CIA. 15 July 2008. Archived from the original on 4 June 2011. Retrieved 19 July 2008.
264. ^ “The World Bank DataBank”. worldbank.org. Archived from the original on 2 October 2019. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
265. ^ Some data refers to IMF staff estimates but some are actual figures for the year 2017, made on 12 April 2017. World Economic Outlook Database–April 2017 Archived 24 June 2021 at the Wayback Machine, International Monetary Fund. Accessed on 18 April 2017.
266. ^ “Report for Selected Countries and Subjects”. IMF.
267. ^ World Bank’s GDP (Nominal) Data for Russia
268. ^ Jump up to:^a b “Peak GDP (PPP) by the World Bank for Turkey and Romania”. Retrieved 10 November 2024.
269. ^ Capitalism Archived 17 May 2014 at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopædia Britannica.
270. ^ Scott, John (2005). Industrialism: A Dictionary of Sociology. Oxford University Press.
271. ^ Kreis, Steven (11 October 2006). “The Origins of the Industrial Revolution in England”. The History Guide. Archived from the original on 2 November 2015. Retrieved 1 January 2007.
272. ^ Dornbusch, Rudiger; Nölling, Wilhelm P.; Layard, Richard G. Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today, p. 117
273. ^ Emadi-Coffin, Barbara (2002). Rethinking International Organisation: Deregulation and Global Governance. Routledge. p. 64. ISBN 978-0-415-19540-9.
274. ^ Dornbusch, Rudiger; Nölling, Wilhelm P.; Layard, Richard G. Postwar Economic Reconstruction and Lessons for the East Today, p. 29
275. ^ Harrop, Martin. Power and Policy in Liberal Democracies, p. 23
276. ^ “Germany (East)”, Library of Congress Country Study, Appendix B: The Council for Mutual Economic Assistance Archived 1 May 2009 at the Wayback Machine
277. ^ “Marshall Plan”. US Department of State Office of the historian. Archived from the original on 14 April 2015. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
278. ^ “Kosovo: Natural resources key to the future, say experts”. adnkronos.com. Archived from the original on 7 July 2011. Retrieved 17 March 2011.
279. ^ “EU data confirms eurozone’s first recession”. EUbusiness.com. 8 January 2009. Archived from the original on 30 December 2010.
280. ^ Thanks to the Bank it’s a crisis; in the eurozone it’s a total catastrophe Archived 31 May 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Telegraph. 8 March 2009.
281. ^ Schultz, Stefan (11 February 2010). “Five Threats to the Common Currency”. Spiegel Online. Archived from the original on 14 April 2010. Retrieved 28 April 2010.
282. ^ Blackstone, Brian; Lauricella, Tom; Shah, Neil (5 February 2010). “Global Markets Shudder: Doubts About U.S. Economy and a Debt Crunch in Europe Jolt Hopes for a Recovery”. The Wall Street Journal. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015. Retrieved 10 May 2010.
283. ^ Lauren Frayer. “European Leaders Try to Calm Fears Over Greek Debt Crisis and Protect Euro”. AOL News. Archived from the original on 9 May 2010. Retrieved 2 June 2010.
284. ^ Unemployment statistics Archived 14 June 2012 at the Wayback Machine. Eurostat. April 2012.
285. ^ CIA.gov Archived 27 May 2016 at the Wayback Machine CIA population growth rankings, CIA World Factbook
286. ^ “World Population Prospects: The 2022 Revision”. United Nations, Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
287. ^ “2021 World Population Data Sheet”. PRB.
288. ^ “Population trends 1950 – 2100: globally and within Europe”. European Environment Agency.
289. ^ World Population Prospects 2022, Summary of Results (PDF). United Nations. pp. 7, 9.
290. ^ “World Population Prospects – Population Division – United Nations”. population.un.org.
291. ^ “White Europeans: An endangered species?”. Yale Daily News. Archived from the original on 19 May 2008. Retrieved 10 June 2008.
292. ^ UN predicts huge migration to rich countries Archived 14 June 2022 at the Wayback Machine. Telegraph. 15 March 2007.
293. ^ Christoph Pan, Beate Sibylle Pfeil, Minderheitenrechte in Europa. Handbuch der europäischen Volksgruppen (2002). Living-Diversity.eu Archived 20 July 2011 at the Wayback Machine, English translation 2004.
294. ^ Word migration report 2022. NEW YORK: International Organization for Migration (IOM). 2021. p. 87. ISBN 978-92-9268-078-7. OCLC 1292425355. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
295. ^ “Europe: Population and Migration in 2005”. Migration Information Source. June 2006. Archived from the original on 9 June 2008. Retrieved 10 June 2008.
296. ^ Jump up to:^a b Migration and migrant population statistics – Statistics Explained. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
297. ^ Brasil-Colônia, Geraldo Pieroni doutor em História pela Université Paris-Sorbonnetambém escreveu os livros: Os Excluídos do Reino: Inquisição portuguesa e o degredo para o; Brasil, Os degredados na colonização do; ciganos, Vadios e; autor, Heréticos e Bruxas: os degredados no Brasil Textos publicados pelo autor Fale com o. “A pena do degredo nas Ordenações do Reino – Jus.com.br | Jus Navigandi”. jus.com.br (in Brazilian Portuguese). Archived from the original on 21 June 2022. Retrieved 11 February 2022.
298. ^ “Ensaio sobre a imigração portuguesa e os padrões de miscigenação no Brasil” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 6 July 2011. Retrieved 18 August 2010.
299. ^ Axtell, James (September–October 1991). “The Columbian Mosaic in Colonial America”. Humanities. 12 (5): 12–18. Archived from the original on 17 May 2008. Retrieved 8 October 2008.
300. ^ Evans, N.J. (2001). “Work in progress: Indirect passage from Europe Transmigration via the UK, 1836–1914”. Journal for Maritime Research. 3: 70–84. doi:10.1080/21533369.2001.9668313.
301. ^ Robert Greenall, Russians left behind in Central Asia Archived 15 November 2019 at the Wayback Machine, BBC News, 23 November 2005
302. ^ “Reference Populations – Geno 2.0 Next Generation”. Archived from the original on 7 April 2016. Retrieved 21 December 2017.
303. ^ Go MC, Jones AR, Algee-Hewitt B, Dudzik B, Hughes C (2019). “Classification Trends among Contemporary Filipino Crania Using Fordisc 3.1”. Human Biology. 2 (4). University of Florida Press: 1–11. doi:10.5744/fa.2019.1005. S2CID 159266278. Archived from the original on 7 January 2021. Retrieved 13 September 2020. [Page 1] ABSTRACT: Filipinos represent a significant contemporary demographic group globally, yet they are underrepresented in the forensic anthropological literature. Given the complex population history of the Philippines, it is important to ensure that traditional methods for assessing the biological profile are appropriate when applied to these peoples. Here we analyze the classification trends of a modern Filipino sample (n = 110) when using the Fordisc 3.1 (FD3) software. We hypothesize that Filipinos represent an admixed population drawn largely from Asian and marginally from European parental gene pools, such that FD3 will classify these individuals morphometrically into reference samples that reflect a range of European admixture, in quantities from small to large. Our results show the greatest classification into Asian reference groups (72.7%), followed by Hispanic (12.7%), Indigenous American (7.3%), African (4.5%), and European (2.7%) groups included in FD3. This general pattern did not change between males and females. Moreover, replacing the raw craniometric values with their shape variables did not significantly alter the trends already observed. These classification trends for Filipino crania provide useful information for casework interpretation in forensic laboratory practice. Our findings can help biological anthropologists to better understand the evolutionary, population historical, and statistical reasons for FD3-generated classifications. The results of our studyindicate that ancestry estimation in forensic anthropology would benefit from population-focused research that gives consideration to histories of colonialism and periods of admixture.
304. ^ Language facts – European day of languages Archived 2 October 2015 at the Wayback Machine, Council of Europe. Retrieved 30 July 2015
305. ^ “Regional Distribution of Christians: Christianity in Europe”. Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project. 18 December 2011. Archived from the original on 1 August 2013. Retrieved 22 February 2015.
306. ^ “Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Christian Population” (PDF). Pew Research Center. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 August 2019.
307. ^ Byrnes, Timothy A.; Katzenstein, Peter J. (2006). Religion in an Expanding Europe. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 110. ISBN 978-0521676519.
308. ^ Hewitson, Mark; D’Auria, Matthew (2012). Europe in Crisis: Intellectuals and the European Idea, 1917–1957. New York; Oxford: Berghahn Books. p. 243. ISBN 9780857457271.
309. ^ Nikodemos Anagnostopoulos, Archimandrite (2017). Orthodoxy and Islam. Taylor & Francis. p. 16. ISBN 9781315297927. Christianity has undoubtedly shaped European identity, culture, destiny, and history.
310. ^ Pew Research Center (19 December 2011). “Global Christianity – A Report on the Size and Distribution of the World’s Christian Population”. Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
311. ^ Jump up to:^a b Hackett, Conrad (29 November 2017). “5 facts about the Muslim population in Europe”. Pew Research Center. Archived from the original on 17 August 2018. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
312. ^ Jump up to:^a b Lipka, Michael (9 February 2015). “The continuing decline of Europe’s Jewish population”. Pew Research Center. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
313. ^ The Pittsburgh Press, October 25, 1915, p. 11
314. ^ Grosfeld, Irena; Rodnyansky, Alexander; Zhuravskaya, Ekaterina (August 2013). “Persistent Antimarket Culture: A Legacy of the Pale of Settlement after the Holocaust”. American Economic Journal: Economic Policy. 5 (3). American Economic Association: 189–226. doi:10.1257/pol.5.3.189. JSTOR 43189345.
315. ^ United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. “Jewish Population of Europe in 1933: Population Data by Country”. encyclopedia.ushmm.org. Retrieved 29 April 2023.
316. ^ Sherwood, Harriet (25 October 2020). “Europe’s Jewish population has dropped 60% in last 50 years”. The Guardian. Retrieved 28 April 2023.
317. ^ Jump up to:^a b “The World’s Cities in 2016” (PDF). United Nations. 2016. p. 11. Archived (PDF) from the original on 1 October 2017. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
318. ^ “Istanbul one of four anchor megacities of Europe: Research”. Hürriyet Daily News. 14 December 2015. Archived from the original on 19 March 2022. Retrieved 30 July 2022.
319. ^ “Major Agglomerations of the World – Population Statistics and Maps”. www.citypopulation.de. Archived from the original on 12 June 2018. Retrieved 10 September 2020.
320. ^ Hilaire Belloc, Europe and the Faith Archived 16 March 2018 at the Wayback Machine, Chapter I
321. ^ Dine, Philip; Crosson, Seán (2010). Sport, Representation and Evolving Identities in Europe. Bern: Peter Lang. p. 2. ISBN 9783039119776.
322. ^ “Sustainable Prosperity – Made in Europe”. sustainable-prosperity.eu.
323. ^ Vishnevsky, Anatoly (15 August 2000). “Replacement Migration: Is it a solution for Russia?” (PDF). Expert Group Meeting on Policy Responses to Population Ageing and Population Decline /UN/POP/PRA/2000/14. United Nations Population Division, Department of Economic and Social Affairs. pp. 6, 10. Archived (PDF) from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 14 January 2008.
324. ^ Jump up to:^a b c The UN Statistics Department [2] Archived 12 December 2024 at the Wayback Machine places Azerbaijan and Georgia in West Asia for statistical convenience (“The assignment of countries or areas to specific groupings is for statistical convenience and does not imply any assumption regarding political or other affiliation of countries or territories”). The CIA World Factbook places Azerbaijan and Georgia in Southwestern Asia, with a small portion north of the Caucasus range in Europe. ([3] Archived 27 January 2021 at the Wayback Machine and [4] Archived 4 February 2021 at the Wayback Machine).
325. ^ Council of Europe “47 countries, one Europe”. Archived from the original on 8 January 2011. Retrieved 9 January 2011., British Foreign and Commonwealth Office “Country profiles ‘ Europe ‘ Georgia”. Archived from the original on 31 December 2010. Retrieved 9 January 2011., World Health Organization [5] Archived 12 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine, World Tourism Organization [6] Archived 26 December 2010 at the Wayback Machine, UNESCO [7] Archived 2 November 2018 at the Wayback Machine, UNICEF [8] Archived 5 December 2013 at the Wayback Machine, UNHCR [9] Archived 2 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine, European Civil Aviation Conference “Member States”. Archived from the original on 23 July 2013. Retrieved 9 January 2011., Euronews [10] Archived 9 May 2021 at the Wayback Machine, BBC [11] Archived 26 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine, NATO [12] Archived 26 July 2022 at the Wayback Machine, Russian Foreign Ministry [13] Archived 21 January 2022 at the Wayback Machine, the World Bank “Europe & Central Asia | Data”. Archived from the original on 19 February 2011. Retrieved 9 January 2011..
326. ^ FAO. “Inland fisheries of Europe”. FAO. Archived from the original on 26 January 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2011.
327. ^ “Europe”. Oxford Learner’s Dictionary. Retrieved 5 February 2023.
328. ^ “Europe”. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 5 February 2023.