Alexander the Great (356–323 BC)

Alexander III of Macedon, famously known as Alexander the Great, was one of history’s most successful military leaders and conquerors. Born in 356 BC in Pella, the ancient capital of Macedonia, he was tutored by the philosopher Aristotle until the age of 16. Upon the assassination of his father, King Philip II, in 336 BC, Alexander ascended the throne at just 20 years old.

Key Achievements:

1. Conquest of the Persian Empire:
   Alexander launched a campaign against the Persian Empire, defeating King Darius III in several decisive battles, including the Battle of Issus (333 BC) and the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC). By the age of 30, he had created one of the largest empires in history, stretching from Greece to northwestern India.
2. Founding of Cities:
   He founded over 20 cities, many of which were named Alexandria, the most famous being in Egypt. These cities became centers of Greek culture and influence.
3. Cultural Integration:
   Alexander promoted cultural exchange between the Greeks and the diverse peoples of his empire. He encouraged intermarriage and adopted elements of Persian dress and customs, aiming to unite his vast empire.
4. Expedition to India:
   In 326 BC, Alexander crossed into the Indian subcontinent, defeating King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes. However, his troops, exhausted from years of campaigning, refused to march further east, leading him to turn back.

Early Life and Education:

Alexander the Great was born in 356 BC in Pella, the capital of the Kingdom of Macedon, to King Philip II and Queen Olympias. His family had royal bloodlines, with his father being a renowned military leader and his mother coming from the royal family of Epirus.

As a child, Alexander exhibited exceptional intelligence and bravery. He was tutored by the famous philosopher Aristotle, who instilled in him a passion for philosophy, science, and literature. Alexander was particularly influenced by the works of Homer, especially the Iliad, which he kept with him during his campaigns.

Ascension to the Throne:

At the age of 20, Alexander inherited the throne after the assassination of his father, King Philip II, in 336 BC. Despite his youth, Alexander was already an experienced military leader, having led troops in battle and commanded the Macedonian cavalry. After securing his position at home by suppressing rebellions, he set his sights on expanding the empire his father had started building.

Military Campaigns and Conquests:

1. Conquest of the Persian Empire:
   Alexander’s most famous and significant military campaign was against the Persian Empire, ruled by King Darius III. In 334 BC, he crossed the Hellespont into Asia Minor and achieved his first victory at the Battle of Granicus. Over the next few years, Alexander secured crucial victories, including the Battle of Issus (333 BC), where he decisively defeated Darius’s army despite being outnumbered. His conquest of the Persian Empire continued as he captured key cities such as Tyre and Gaza, before eventually overthrowing Darius at the Battle of Gaugamela (331 BC), near present-day Iraq. This marked the fall of the Persian Empire.
2. Egypt and the Foundation of Alexandria:
   After defeating the Persians, Alexander turned to Egypt, where he was welcomed as a liberator. In 331 BC, he founded the city of Alexandria, which would become a major center of learning, culture, and commerce. He was also declared a god in Egypt and was presented with the title of Pharaoh.
3. Campaign in India:
   In 326 BC, Alexander ventured into India, crossing the Hindu Kush and defeating King Porus at the Battle of the Hydaspes. This battle, one of Alexander’s most challenging, showcased his military brilliance, as he crossed a river in the face of a strong opponent and used strategic tactics to win. However, his army, weary from years of campaigning, refused to march further into India, forcing Alexander to retreat.

Leadership and Military Innovations:

Alexander was known not only for his tactical genius but also for his leadership qualities. He was deeply involved in the lives of his soldiers, often fighting alongside them on the frontlines. His charisma and bravery inspired loyalty and admiration among his troops.

Some of his key military innovations included:

• Use of the phalanx: A formation of infantry soldiers, armed with long spears (sarissas), which allowed for strong defensive and offensive capabilities.
• Cavalry charges: Alexander’s use of cavalry, particularly his elite companion cavalry, was decisive in battles. His cavalry often acted as a flanking force, breaking enemy lines.

Cultural Influence and Legacy:

1. Hellenistic Culture:
   Alexander’s empire facilitated the spread of Greek culture and ideas across Asia and Egypt, blending Greek, Persian, Egyptian, and Indian influences. This period, known as the Hellenistic Era, saw advances in art, science, and philosophy, with cities like Alexandria becoming centers of knowledge, home to scholars such as Euclid and Archimedes.
2. The Founder of Cities:
   Alexander’s fondness for founding cities led to the establishment of over 20 cities, many of which carried his name, Alexandria. These cities played a key role in disseminating Greek culture and became major trade and cultural hubs.
3. The Spread of Greek Philosophy and Science:
   Through his conquests, Alexander spread Greek philosophy, literature, and art. He encouraged the study of science, and scholars were often part of his court. His respect for local cultures, along with his promotion of Greek customs, helped to create a cosmopolitan world that continued to influence many regions long after his death.

The Division of His Empire:

Alexander’s sudden death in 323 BC in Babylon shocked the world. The cause of his death is still debated, with theories ranging from malaria or poisoning to complications from an illness or even a fever caused by a wound.

After his death, Alexander’s vast empire was divided among his generals, known as the Diadochi. They fought for control, and eventually, the empire split into several Hellenistic kingdoms, most notably the Ptolemaic Kingdom of Egypt, the Seleucid Empire in Asia, and the Antigonid dynasty in Macedonia.

Legacy:

Despite the fragmentation of his empire, Alexander’s legacy endures. He is regarded as one of the greatest military commanders in history and has been admired for centuries by leaders and conquerors. His conquests altered the course of history, making significant contributions to the cultural exchange between East and West. His influence is still seen today in various aspects of Western culture, art, and military strategy. Alexander the Great is remembered as a visionary who changed the world, both through his military prowess and his efforts to merge cultures across his vast empire.

Death:

Alexander died in 323 BC in Babylon at the age of 32, under mysterious circumstances—possibly from fever, poisoning, or other natural causes. His sudden death led to the fragmentation of his empire, which was divided among his generals, known as the Diadochi.

Alexander’s legacy endures as a symbol of military genius and ambition. His conquests spread Greek culture throughout the known world, influencing the Hellenistic era, a period marked by significant cultural, scientific, and philosophical advancements.

Courtesy: Os. Bend.

References

• ^ Arrian (1884). The Anabasis of Alexander; or, The history of the wars and conquests of Alexander the Great. Literally translated, with a commentary, from the Greek of Arrian, the Nicomedian. Cornell University Library. London, Hodder and Stoughton.
• ^ Arrian (10 April 2018). The Anabasis of Alexander. Ozymandias Press. ISBN 978-1-5312-8444-2.
• ^ Staff, HistoryNet (17 September 2007). “The Battle That Saved Western Civilization: Alexander vs. Darius”. HistoryNet. Retrieved 3 October 2024.
• ^ Freeman, Charles. The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World. Allen Lane, 1999. ISBN 978-0-7139-9224-3. p.172: “In scope and extent his achievements ranked far above that of the Macedonian king, Alexander (“the Great”) who was to demolish the empire in the 320s but failed to provide any stable alternative.”
• ^ Bowra, C. Maurice (1994) [1957]. The Greek Experience. London: Phoenix Orion Books Ltd. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-85799-122-2.
• ^ Sacks, David, (1995), Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World, London: Constable and Co. Ltd, ISBN 978-0-09-475270-2, p. 16.
• ^ Strudwick 2013, p. 97.
• ^ “Philip II: king of Macedonia”. Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 11 July 2023.
• ^
  • McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 30-31.
  • Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 262-263
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 61-62
  • Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 72
• ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Strudwick 2013, p. 96.
• ^
  • McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 31.
  • Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 263
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 72
  • Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 104
  • Bose, Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy, p. 95
• ^
  • Bose, Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy, p. 96.
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 72
• ^
  • Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, p. 44–48.
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 73–74.
• ^
  • Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, p. 50–54.
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 77.
• ^ Plutarch. Phocion. p. 17.
• ^ cf. Justinus, Marcus Junianus. Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus. p. 11.6. Archived from the original on 24 May 2012.
• ^ Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. p. 50.
• ^ Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. p. 48.
• ^ Jump up to:^a b Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. p. 51.
• ^ Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. pp. 51–53.
• ^ https://issuu.com/sonjcemarceva/docs/alexander_the_great_-_historical_so Archived 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine, see page 72 [Arrian, 1.16.7.]
• ^ Murison, C. L. (1972). “Darius III and the Battle of Issus”. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 21 (3): 399–423. ISSN 0018-2311. JSTOR 4435274.
• ^ Stafford, Ned (14 May 2007). “How geology came to help Alexander the Great”. Nature.com. Retrieved 17 May 2007.
• ^ Jump up to:^a b “Siege of Tyre and Gaza”. Retrieved 19 January 2007.
• ^ “Leaders and Battles: Gaza, Siege of”. Leaders and Battles Database. Archived from the original on 22 October 2006. Retrieved 18 January 2007.
• ^ “KurdishGlobe- The Location of the Battle of Gaugamela Discovered”. www.kurdishglobe.net. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014.
• ^ “The Location of the Battle of Gaugamela Discovered – The Kurdish Globe (Erbil, Iraq) | HighBeam Research”. 24 September 2015. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
• ^ Robinson, Cyril Edward (1929). A History of Greece. Methuen & Company Limited. ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.^{[permanent dead link]}
• ^ Farrokh, Kaveh (24 April 2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War (General Military). Osprey Publishing. p. 106. ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.^{[permanent dead link]} ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.
• ^ For the identification, see Henry Speck, “Alexander at the Persian Gates. A Study in Historiography and Topography” in: American Journal of Ancient History n.s. 1.1 (2002) 15-234; more… Archived 18 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
• ^ Quintus Curtius Rufus
• ^ N. G. L. Hammond (1992). “The Archaeological and Literary Evidence for the Burning of the Persepolis Palace”, The Classical Quarterly 42 (2), p. 358-364.
• ^ John Prevas (2005). Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great’s Ill-Fated Journey Across Asia. Da Capo Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-306-81442-6.^{[permanent dead link]}
• ^ Narain, A. K. (1965). Alexander the Great: Greece and Rome – 12. pp. 155–165.
• ^ Curtius in McCrindle, Op cit, p 192, J. W. McCrindle; History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 229, Punajbi University, Patiala, (Editors): Fauja Singh, L. M. Joshi; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 134, Kirpal Singh.
• ^ Fuller, p. 198:
  “While the battle raged, Craterus forced his way over the Haranpur ford. When he saw that Alexander was winning a brilliant victory he pressed on and, as his men were fresh, took over the pursuit.”
• ^ The Anabasis of Alexander/Book V/Chapter XVIII
• ^ The Anabasis of Alexander/Book V/Chapter XIX
• ^ Peter Connolly. Greece and Rome at War. Macdonald Phoebus Ltd, 1981, p. 66
• ^ Bongard-Levin, G. (1979). A History of India. Moscow: Progress Publishers. p. 264.
• ^ Plutarch, “Alexander”. p. 62.
• ^ “Plutarch • Life of Alexander (Part 7 of 7)”. penelope.uchicago.edu.
• References
• [edit]
• ^ Arrian (1884). The Anabasis of Alexander; or, The history of the wars and conquests of Alexander the Great. Literally translated, with a commentary, from the Greek of Arrian, the Nicomedian. Cornell University Library. London, Hodder and Stoughton.
• ^ Arrian (10 April 2018). The Anabasis of Alexander. Ozymandias Press. ISBN 978-1-5312-8444-2.
• ^ Staff, HistoryNet (17 September 2007). “The Battle That Saved Western Civilization: Alexander vs. Darius”. HistoryNet. Retrieved 3 October 2024.
• ^ Freeman, Charles. The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World. Allen Lane, 1999. ISBN 978-0-7139-9224-3. p.172: “In scope and extent his achievements ranked far above that of the Macedonian king, Alexander (“the Great”) who was to demolish the empire in the 320s but failed to provide any stable alternative.”
• ^ Bowra, C. Maurice (1994) [1957]. The Greek Experience. London: Phoenix Orion Books Ltd. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-85799-122-2.
• ^ Sacks, David, (1995), Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World, London: Constable and Co. Ltd, ISBN 978-0-09-475270-2, p. 16.
• ^ Strudwick 2013, p. 97.
• ^ “Philip II: king of Macedonia”. Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 11 July 2023.
• ^
  • McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 30-31.
  • Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 262-263
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 61-62
  • Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 72
• ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Strudwick 2013, p. 96.
• ^
  • McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 31.
  • Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 263
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 72
  • Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 104
  • Bose, Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy, p. 95
• ^
  • Bose, Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy, p. 96.
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 72
• ^
  • Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, p. 44–48.
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 73–74.
• ^
  • Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, p. 50–54.
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 77.
• ^ Plutarch. Phocion. p. 17.
• ^ cf. Justinus, Marcus Junianus. Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus. p. 11.6. Archived from the original on 24 May 2012.
• ^ Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. p. 50.
• ^ Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. p. 48.
• ^ Jump up to:^a b Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. p. 51.
• ^ Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. pp. 51–53.
• ^ https://issuu.com/sonjcemarceva/docs/alexander_the_great_-_historical_so Archived 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine, see page 72 [Arrian, 1.16.7.]
• ^ Murison, C. L. (1972). “Darius III and the Battle of Issus”. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 21 (3): 399–423. ISSN 0018-2311. JSTOR 4435274.
• ^ Stafford, Ned (14 May 2007). “How geology came to help Alexander the Great”. Nature.com. Retrieved 17 May 2007.
• ^ Jump up to:^a b “Siege of Tyre and Gaza”. Retrieved 19 January 2007.
• ^ “Leaders and Battles: Gaza, Siege of”. Leaders and Battles Database. Archived from the original on 22 October 2006. Retrieved 18 January 2007.
• ^ “KurdishGlobe- The Location of the Battle of Gaugamela Discovered”. www.kurdishglobe.net. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014.
• ^ “The Location of the Battle of Gaugamela Discovered – The Kurdish Globe (Erbil, Iraq) | HighBeam Research”. 24 September 2015. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
• ^ Robinson, Cyril Edward (1929). A History of Greece. Methuen & Company Limited. ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.^{[permanent dead link]}
• ^ Farrokh, Kaveh (24 April 2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War (General Military). Osprey Publishing. p. 106. ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.^{[permanent dead link]} ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.
• ^ For the identification, see Henry Speck, “Alexander at the Persian Gates. A Study in Historiography and Topography” in: American Journal of Ancient History n.s. 1.1 (2002) 15-234; more… Archived 18 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
• ^ Quintus Curtius Rufus
• ^ N. G. L. Hammond (1992). “The Archaeological and Literary Evidence for the Burning of the Persepolis Palace”, The Classical Quarterly 42 (2), p. 358-364.
• ^ John Prevas (2005). Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great’s Ill-Fated Journey Across Asia. Da Capo Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-306-81442-6.^{[permanent dead link]}
• ^ Narain, A. K. (1965). Alexander the Great: Greece and Rome – 12. pp. 155–165.
• ^ Curtius in McCrindle, Op cit, p 192, J. W. McCrindle; History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 229, Punajbi University, Patiala, (Editors): Fauja Singh, L. M. Joshi; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 134, Kirpal Singh.
• ^ Fuller, p. 198:
  “While the battle raged, Craterus forced his way over the Haranpur ford. When he saw that Alexander was winning a brilliant victory he pressed on and, as his men were fresh, took over the pursuit.”
• ^ The Anabasis of Alexander/Book V/Chapter XVIII
• ^ The Anabasis of Alexander/Book V/Chapter XIX
• ^ Peter Connolly. Greece and Rome at War. Macdonald Phoebus Ltd, 1981, p. 66
• ^ Bongard-Levin, G. (1979). A History of India. Moscow: Progress Publishers. p. 264.
• ^ Plutarch, “Alexander”. p. 62.
• ^ “Plutarch • Life of Alexander (Part 7 of 7)”. penelope.uchicago.edu.
• References
• [edit]
• ^ Arrian (1884). The Anabasis of Alexander; or, The history of the wars and conquests of Alexander the Great. Literally translated, with a commentary, from the Greek of Arrian, the Nicomedian. Cornell University Library. London, Hodder and Stoughton.
• ^ Arrian (10 April 2018). The Anabasis of Alexander. Ozymandias Press. ISBN 978-1-5312-8444-2.
• ^ Staff, HistoryNet (17 September 2007). “The Battle That Saved Western Civilization: Alexander vs. Darius”. HistoryNet. Retrieved 3 October 2024.
• ^ Freeman, Charles. The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World. Allen Lane, 1999. ISBN 978-0-7139-9224-3. p.172: “In scope and extent his achievements ranked far above that of the Macedonian king, Alexander (“the Great”) who was to demolish the empire in the 320s but failed to provide any stable alternative.”
• ^ Bowra, C. Maurice (1994) [1957]. The Greek Experience. London: Phoenix Orion Books Ltd. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-85799-122-2.
• ^ Sacks, David, (1995), Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World, London: Constable and Co. Ltd, ISBN 978-0-09-475270-2, p. 16.
• ^ Strudwick 2013, p. 97.
• ^ “Philip II: king of Macedonia”. Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 11 July 2023.
• ^
  • McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 30-31.
  • Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 262-263
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 61-62
  • Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 72
• ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Strudwick 2013, p. 96.
• ^
  • McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 31.
  • Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 263
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 72
  • Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 104
  • Bose, Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy, p. 95
• ^
  • Bose, Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy, p. 96.
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 72
• ^
  • Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, p. 44–48.
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 73–74.
• ^
  • Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, p. 50–54.
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 77.
• ^ Plutarch. Phocion. p. 17.
• ^ cf. Justinus, Marcus Junianus. Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus. p. 11.6. Archived from the original on 24 May 2012.
• ^ Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. p. 50.
• ^ Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. p. 48.
• ^ Jump up to:^a b Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. p. 51.
• ^ Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. pp. 51–53.
• ^ https://issuu.com/sonjcemarceva/docs/alexander_the_great_-_historical_so Archived 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine, see page 72 [Arrian, 1.16.7.]
• ^ Murison, C. L. (1972). “Darius III and the Battle of Issus”. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 21 (3): 399–423. ISSN 0018-2311. JSTOR 4435274.
• ^ Stafford, Ned (14 May 2007). “How geology came to help Alexander the Great”. Nature.com. Retrieved 17 May 2007.
• ^ Jump up to:^a b “Siege of Tyre and Gaza”. Retrieved 19 January 2007.
• ^ “Leaders and Battles: Gaza, Siege of”. Leaders and Battles Database. Archived from the original on 22 October 2006. Retrieved 18 January 2007.
• ^ “KurdishGlobe- The Location of the Battle of Gaugamela Discovered”. www.kurdishglobe.net. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014.
• ^ “The Location of the Battle of Gaugamela Discovered – The Kurdish Globe (Erbil, Iraq) | HighBeam Research”. 24 September 2015. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
• ^ Robinson, Cyril Edward (1929). A History of Greece. Methuen & Company Limited. ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.^{[permanent dead link]}
• ^ Farrokh, Kaveh (24 April 2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War (General Military). Osprey Publishing. p. 106. ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.^{[permanent dead link]} ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.
• ^ For the identification, see Henry Speck, “Alexander at the Persian Gates. A Study in Historiography and Topography” in: American Journal of Ancient History n.s. 1.1 (2002) 15-234; more… Archived 18 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
• ^ Quintus Curtius Rufus
• ^ N. G. L. Hammond (1992). “The Archaeological and Literary Evidence for the Burning of the Persepolis Palace”, The Classical Quarterly 42 (2), p. 358-364.
• ^ John Prevas (2005). Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great’s Ill-Fated Journey Across Asia. Da Capo Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-306-81442-6.^{[permanent dead link]}
• ^ Narain, A. K. (1965). Alexander the Great: Greece and Rome – 12. pp. 155–165.
• ^ Curtius in McCrindle, Op cit, p 192, J. W. McCrindle; History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 229, Punajbi University, Patiala, (Editors): Fauja Singh, L. M. Joshi; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 134, Kirpal Singh.
• ^ Fuller, p. 198:
  “While the battle raged, Craterus forced his way over the Haranpur ford. When he saw that Alexander was winning a brilliant victory he pressed on and, as his men were fresh, took over the pursuit.”
• ^ The Anabasis of Alexander/Book V/Chapter XVIII
• ^ The Anabasis of Alexander/Book V/Chapter XIX
• ^ Peter Connolly. Greece and Rome at War. Macdonald Phoebus Ltd, 1981, p. 66
• ^ Bongard-Levin, G. (1979). A History of India. Moscow: Progress Publishers. p. 264.
• ^ Plutarch, “Alexander”. p. 62.
• ^ “Plutarch • Life of Alexander (Part 7 of 7)”. penelope.uchicago.edu.
• References
• [edit]
• ^ Arrian (1884). The Anabasis of Alexander; or, The history of the wars and conquests of Alexander the Great. Literally translated, with a commentary, from the Greek of Arrian, the Nicomedian. Cornell University Library. London, Hodder and Stoughton.
• ^ Arrian (10 April 2018). The Anabasis of Alexander. Ozymandias Press. ISBN 978-1-5312-8444-2.
• ^ Staff, HistoryNet (17 September 2007). “The Battle That Saved Western Civilization: Alexander vs. Darius”. HistoryNet. Retrieved 3 October 2024.
• ^ Freeman, Charles. The Greek Achievement: The Foundation of the Western World. Allen Lane, 1999. ISBN 978-0-7139-9224-3. p.172: “In scope and extent his achievements ranked far above that of the Macedonian king, Alexander (“the Great”) who was to demolish the empire in the 320s but failed to provide any stable alternative.”
• ^ Bowra, C. Maurice (1994) [1957]. The Greek Experience. London: Phoenix Orion Books Ltd. p. 9. ISBN 978-1-85799-122-2.
• ^ Sacks, David, (1995), Encyclopedia of the Ancient Greek World, London: Constable and Co. Ltd, ISBN 978-0-09-475270-2, p. 16.
• ^ Strudwick 2013, p. 97.
• ^ “Philip II: king of Macedonia”. Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc. 11 July 2023.
• ^
  • McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 30-31.
  • Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 262-263
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 61-62
  • Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 72
• ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Strudwick 2013, p. 96.
• ^
  • McCarty, Alexander the Great, p. 31.
  • Plutarch, The Age of Alexander, p. 263
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 72
  • Fox, The Search For Alexander, p. 104
  • Bose, Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy, p. 95
• ^
  • Bose, Alexander the Great’s Art of Strategy, p. 96.
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 72
• ^
  • Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, p. 44–48.
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 73–74.
• ^
  • Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, p. 50–54.
  • Renault, The Nature of Alexander the Great, p. 77.
• ^ Plutarch. Phocion. p. 17.
• ^ cf. Justinus, Marcus Junianus. Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus. p. 11.6. Archived from the original on 24 May 2012.
• ^ Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. p. 50.
• ^ Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. p. 48.
• ^ Jump up to:^a b Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. p. 51.
• ^ Strauss, Barry. Masters of Command. pp. 51–53.
• ^ https://issuu.com/sonjcemarceva/docs/alexander_the_great_-_historical_so Archived 8 March 2021 at the Wayback Machine, see page 72 [Arrian, 1.16.7.]
• ^ Murison, C. L. (1972). “Darius III and the Battle of Issus”. Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 21 (3): 399–423. ISSN 0018-2311. JSTOR 4435274.
• ^ Stafford, Ned (14 May 2007). “How geology came to help Alexander the Great”. Nature.com. Retrieved 17 May 2007.
• ^ Jump up to:^a b “Siege of Tyre and Gaza”. Retrieved 19 January 2007.
• ^ “Leaders and Battles: Gaza, Siege of”. Leaders and Battles Database. Archived from the original on 22 October 2006. Retrieved 18 January 2007.
• ^ “KurdishGlobe- The Location of the Battle of Gaugamela Discovered”. www.kurdishglobe.net. Archived from the original on 13 April 2014.
• ^ “The Location of the Battle of Gaugamela Discovered – The Kurdish Globe (Erbil, Iraq) | HighBeam Research”. 24 September 2015. Archived from the original on 24 September 2015.
• ^ Robinson, Cyril Edward (1929). A History of Greece. Methuen & Company Limited. ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.^{[permanent dead link]}
• ^ Farrokh, Kaveh (24 April 2007). Shadows in the Desert: Ancient Persia at War (General Military). Osprey Publishing. p. 106. ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.^{[permanent dead link]} ISBN 978-1-84603-108-3.
• ^ For the identification, see Henry Speck, “Alexander at the Persian Gates. A Study in Historiography and Topography” in: American Journal of Ancient History n.s. 1.1 (2002) 15-234; more… Archived 18 April 2009 at the Wayback Machine.
• ^ Quintus Curtius Rufus
• ^ N. G. L. Hammond (1992). “The Archaeological and Literary Evidence for the Burning of the Persepolis Palace”, The Classical Quarterly 42 (2), p. 358-364.
• ^ John Prevas (2005). Envy of the Gods: Alexander the Great’s Ill-Fated Journey Across Asia. Da Capo Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-0-306-81442-6.^{[permanent dead link]}
• ^ Narain, A. K. (1965). Alexander the Great: Greece and Rome – 12. pp. 155–165.
• ^ Curtius in McCrindle, Op cit, p 192, J. W. McCrindle; History of Punjab, Vol I, 1997, p 229, Punajbi University, Patiala, (Editors): Fauja Singh, L. M. Joshi; Kambojas Through the Ages, 2005, p 134, Kirpal Singh.
• ^ Fuller, p. 198:
  “While the battle raged, Craterus forced his way over the Haranpur ford. When he saw that Alexander was winning a brilliant victory he pressed on and, as his men were fresh, took over the pursuit.”
• ^ The Anabasis of Alexander/Book V/Chapter XVIII
• ^ The Anabasis of Alexander/Book V/Chapter XIX
• ^ Peter Connolly. Greece and Rome at War. Macdonald Phoebus Ltd, 1981, p. 66
• ^ Bongard-Levin, G. (1979). A History of India. Moscow: Progress Publishers. p. 264.
• ^ Plutarch, “Alexander”. p. 62.
• ^ “Plutarch • Life of Alexander (Part 7 of 7)”. penelope.uchicago.edu.