Manmohan Singh, former Prime Minister of India, passed away at 92. He served as Finance Minister under PM P.V. Narasimha Rao and was the architect of India’s 1991 economic reforms, which transformed the nation’s economy.

Former Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh passed away on Thursday at the age of 92. A distinguished economist, Dr. Singh served as the 13th Prime Minister of India from 2004 to 2014. He was known for his calm demeanor and strategic leadership, particularly in navigating India through economic challenges.

Before becoming Prime Minister, Dr. Singh was the Finance Minister under then-Prime Minister P. V. Narasimha Rao in the early 1990s. His groundbreaking economic reforms in 1991, which included liberalizing the Indian economy, were instrumental in transforming the nation into one of the world’s fastest-growing economies.

Dr. Singh’s tenure as Prime Minister was marked by significant progress in various sectors, including the economy, foreign relations, and technological advancements. Despite challenges, his leadership played a pivotal role in shaping India’s trajectory on the global stage.

His death marks the end of an era, and he is remembered for his integrity, commitment to public service, and contributions to India’s growth and modernization. Tributes have poured in from across the political spectrum, acknowledging his unparalleled legacy in India’s development.

Former Prime Minister Dr. Manmohan Singh passed away on Thursday at the age of 92. Dr. Singh was one of India’s most respected leaders and a distinguished economist, best known for his role in transforming the country’s economic landscape.

Dr. Singh’s political journey began when he became the Finance Minister under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao in 1991. During this period, he was the architect of the landmark economic reforms that liberalized the Indian economy, opening it up to global markets and setting the stage for decades of growth. These reforms, including the devaluation of the rupee, the reduction of import tariffs, and the opening up of foreign investment, are often credited with making India one of the fastest-growing economies in the world.

After serving as Finance Minister, Dr. Singh became the Prime Minister of India in 2004, serving two terms until 2014. His tenure was marked by continued economic growth, India’s emergence as a global player, and improved relations with key countries. His calm demeanor and commitment to economic stability were highly regarded, and he was often seen as a man of principle, dedicated to the progress of the country.

Under his leadership, India saw significant advances in technology, education, and infrastructure, but his tenure also faced challenges, including issues related to corruption scandals and policy paralysis. Despite these setbacks, his role in shaping India’s modern economic framework remains his lasting legacy.

Dr. Singh’s contributions extended beyond the economic sphere. He played a crucial role in India’s foreign policy, fostering strong relationships with the United States, Russia, and other key global powers. His leadership during the Indo-US nuclear deal was a defining moment in India’s international relations.

Dr. Manmohan Singh is remembered not only for his economic reforms but also for his integrity, humility, and commitment to public service. His death is a significant moment in India’s history, and tributes have poured in from political leaders, citizens, and world leaders alike, all acknowledging his remarkable contributions to the nation.

Dr. Singh is survived by his family, and his passing marks the end of an era in Indian politics.

Dr. Manmohan Singh, who passed away at the age of 92, leaves behind a legacy that shaped India’s modern identity both economically and politically. Born on September 26, 1932, in Gah, now part of Pakistan, Singh’s journey from a small town in Punjab to the corridors of power in New Delhi is nothing short of remarkable. Known for his quiet and intellectual persona, Dr. Singh never sought the limelight but was undeniably a towering figure in Indian politics and economics.

As Finance Minister under Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao, Dr. Singh steered India through one of the country’s most significant economic crises in 1991. The country faced a dire balance-of-payments crisis, and under his stewardship, India was forced to make drastic reforms, including liberalizing the economy and reducing the government’s role in business. The devaluation of the rupee, along with significant changes to trade and industrial policies, was a pivotal moment in India’s history, sparking years of rapid growth. His reforms also encouraged foreign investments, bolstering India’s standing on the global economic stage.

Dr. Singh’s leadership as Prime Minister (2004-2014) marked a period of continuous economic growth for India, although his tenure also faced challenges. His government dealt with corruption scandals, rising inflation, and policy inertia, but Dr. Singh’s reputation for personal integrity and calm demeanor remained unshaken. He was often referred to as the “economic architect” of modern India and was lauded for his prudence and academic excellence.

During his tenure as Prime Minister, Dr. Singh also played a key role in shaping India’s foreign policy, particularly with the United States. His handling of the landmark Indo-US nuclear deal in 2008 brought India closer to the global nuclear mainstream. His strategic vision on international relations, particularly with the United States, Russia, and other major global players, helped position India as a rising power on the world stage.

Despite his achievements, Dr. Singh faced criticism, particularly in his second term, when his government was accused of being mired in policy paralysis. However, his legacy as a reformer and a visionary economist continued to overshadow these concerns.

Singh’s contributions were recognized both in India and internationally. He was awarded numerous honors, including being named a member of the Order of Merit by the United Kingdom and receiving various accolades for his role in global economic and political affairs. His voice on global platforms on issues of economic equality, climate change, and the need for a multilateral approach to international problems made him a respected figure beyond India.

Dr. Singh’s passing is being mourned across the world. From world leaders to Indian citizens, tributes have poured in acknowledging his immense contributions. Indian President Droupadi Murmu, Prime Minister Narendra Modi, and various other political leaders have expressed their condolences, remembering him as a great statesman and a leader who dedicated his life to the service of the nation.

Dr. Singh’s life stands as a testament to the power of calm leadership and the impact of visionary reforms. His death marks the end of an era in Indian politics, leaving behind a lasting imprint on the country’s path to economic growth and international prominence. He is survived by his wife, Gursharan Kaur, and their two daughters. His funeral is expected to be attended by political leaders, former colleagues, and well-wishers who have been inspired by his integrity and service.

Dr. Manmohan Singh’s legacy extends far beyond his role as an economist and statesman; he was a scholar, a diplomat, and a visionary leader who dedicated his life to India’s progress. His journey reflects a blend of humility and intellect that resonated with millions of Indians and inspired many across the globe.

Early Life and Education

Born into a modest Sikh family in the village of Gah in Punjab (now in Pakistan) on September 26, 1932, Dr. Singh displayed extraordinary academic brilliance from an early age. After partition, his family migrated to India, where he continued his education. He earned a First Class Honours degree in Economics from Punjab University, followed by a postgraduate degree from the University of Cambridge in the UK. Later, he completed his DPhil from the University of Oxford, establishing himself as one of the most highly educated leaders in Indian history.

Career Before Politics

Before entering the political arena, Dr. Singh served in various prestigious roles. He was a professor at Delhi School of Economics, an advisor at the United Nations, and the Governor of the Reserve Bank of India. He also served as the Economic Advisor to the Government of India and Secretary in the Ministry of Finance. His expertise in financial and economic matters made him a natural choice for leading India’s economic reforms.

A Career of Landmark Achievements

Architect of Economic Reforms (1991)

When India was on the brink of an economic collapse in 1991, Dr. Singh, as the Finance Minister, unveiled sweeping economic reforms that dismantled the License Raj, opened India to global markets, and liberalized trade. These measures transformed India’s economy from a state-controlled system to a market-driven one, laying the foundation for sustained economic growth and positioning India as an emerging global power.

Prime Ministership (2004-2014)

Dr. Singh served as India’s Prime Minister for a decade, making him the longest-serving Prime Minister after Jawaharlal Nehru and Indira Gandhi. His tenure is marked by several key developments:

• Economic Growth: India experienced high GDP growth rates during his first term, with significant advancements in infrastructure, technology, and manufacturing.
• Social Programs: His government implemented transformative welfare schemes such as the Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA), the Right to Education Act, and the National Food Security Act, aimed at reducing poverty and improving living standards.
• International Relations: Dr. Singh strengthened India’s global partnerships, particularly with the United States through the Indo-US nuclear deal. He also deepened ties with Southeast Asia, Europe, and neighboring countries.
• Rural and Urban Development: Programs like Bharat Nirman and the Jawaharlal Nehru National Urban Renewal Mission (JNNURM) focused on urban development and rural connectivity.

Challenges and Controversies

While his first term was celebrated for its achievements, the second term faced challenges, including corruption scandals like the 2G spectrum and coal allocation controversies. Despite these issues, Dr. Singh was often praised for his personal integrity and non-partisan approach to governance.

Personal Traits and Philosophy

Dr. Singh was known for his humility, quiet demeanor, and a strong sense of ethics. His speeches often reflected a deep understanding of India’s socio-economic fabric and a vision for inclusive growth. Despite being a technocrat, he maintained a grounded approach, connecting with people from all walks of life.

Tributes and Legacy

As news of his passing spread, tributes poured in from all corners of the world. Leaders described him as a “gentleman-politician” and “a guiding light for economic progress.” Former US President Barack Obama once called him “a man of uncommon wisdom and decency.”

Dr. Singh’s legacy will be remembered for transforming India into a modern economic powerhouse while maintaining the country’s democratic and inclusive values. His contributions to global economic discourse, his unwavering dedication to public service, and his scholarly achievements ensure that his memory will endure for generations.

A state funeral is being organized in New Delhi, where dignitaries, leaders, and citizens will pay their final respects. As India mourns the loss of one of its greatest reformers, Dr. Singh’s life remains an inspiration for future leaders and citizens alike.

Dr. Manmohan Singh’s Impact on Modern India

Dr. Manmohan Singh was a statesman who not only understood the intricate mechanisms of economic policy but also had the vision to implement them for the greater good of India. His contributions continue to shape the nation in various ways, underscoring his profound influence on India’s transformation into a 21st-century powerhouse.

The Economic Liberalization of 1991

The landmark reforms introduced under Dr. Singh’s stewardship as Finance Minister are often hailed as India’s second independence — economic liberation. These reforms:

• Deregulated Industries: Removed government controls over private enterprises, leading to a surge in entrepreneurial activities.
• Trade Liberalization: Reduced tariffs and opened India to global competition, making Indian industries globally competitive.
• Foreign Investment: Encouraged foreign direct investment (FDI), bringing in capital, technology, and expertise.
• Tax Reforms: Simplified tax structures, laying the groundwork for subsequent economic policies like the Goods and Services Tax (GST).

These changes not only averted a looming financial crisis but also placed India on a trajectory of rapid growth, lifting millions out of poverty.

Leadership During Crises

Dr. Singh’s tenure was marked by his calm and resolute leadership during challenging times:

• Global Financial Crisis (2008): As Prime Minister, he navigated India through the global recession, ensuring minimal impact on the economy while maintaining growth.
• Terrorism and National Security: After the 26/11 Mumbai attacks, Dr. Singh strengthened national security frameworks and enhanced intelligence coordination.
• Agrarian Distress: His government introduced debt waiver schemes and increased support for rural development to address the challenges faced by farmers.

Diplomatic Achievements

Dr. Singh believed in diplomacy as a tool for fostering global peace and economic growth. His major diplomatic achievements include:

• Indo-US Civil Nuclear Agreement: A landmark deal that ended India’s nuclear isolation, enabling access to nuclear technology and fuel for civilian purposes.
• Engagement with Neighbors: He sought to improve relations with Pakistan and China through dialogue while firmly defending India’s interests.
• Global Forums: Representing India at G20 summits and other international platforms, he consistently advocated for the interests of developing nations.

Educational Contributions

Dr. Singh’s academic background made him a strong advocate for education. Under his leadership:

• The Right to Education Act (RTE) was enacted, making education a fundamental right for children.
• Investments in higher education and research were significantly increased, leading to the establishment of new IITs, IIMs, and AIIMS.

Personal Life and Values

Dr. Singh’s personal life was marked by simplicity and integrity. Married to Gursharan Kaur, the couple raised three daughters in a household that reflected humility and a deep respect for education and values. Despite his high-profile career, Dr. Singh avoided ostentation, often walking the path of a public servant rather than a political leader.

Recognition and Honors

Over his lifetime, Dr. Singh received numerous accolades for his contributions:

• Padma Vibhushan (1987): India’s second-highest civilian award for exceptional service.
• Honorary degrees from prestigious institutions, including Oxford and Cambridge.
• Named as one of the “100 Most Influential People in the World” by Time magazine during his prime ministership.

The End of an Era

Dr. Manmohan Singh’s passing marks the end of an era of reform, resilience, and quiet determination. As India pays tribute to a leader who profoundly shaped its destiny, his life stands as a testament to the power of intellect, vision, and unwavering commitment to the nation.

The outpouring of grief and respect from leaders, citizens, and global figures underscores the void left by his absence. Dr. Singh’s ideas, principles, and vision will continue to guide India as it moves forward, striving for growth, inclusivity, and prosperity.

Tributes Pour In for Dr. Manmohan Singh

Dr. Manmohan Singh’s passing has elicited heartfelt tributes from across the political spectrum, academia, and the international community. Leaders, economists, and citizens have expressed their admiration for a man who combined intellect, humility, and a relentless commitment to the nation’s progress.

Domestic Leaders Pay Homage

President Droupadi Murmu called Dr. Singh “a visionary leader whose economic policies paved the way for India’s rise as a global power.” Prime Minister Narendra Modi described him as “a leader who guided the nation through pivotal moments with wisdom and foresight.” Former Congress President Sonia Gandhi and Rahul Gandhi hailed him as “the architect of modern India’s economic foundation.”

State leaders, including Chief Ministers from various states, also highlighted Dr. Singh’s role in supporting cooperative federalism and empowering states with more financial autonomy.

Global Community Honors His Legacy

International leaders have also paid tribute to Dr. Singh:

• Joe Biden, President of the United States, called him a “statesman of integrity and a champion of democratic values.”
• Christine Lagarde, President of the European Central Bank, referred to him as “one of the finest economic minds of our times.”
• UN Secretary-General António Guterres praised Dr. Singh for his efforts to bridge the gap between developed and developing nations on global platforms.

Leaders from neighboring countries, including Pakistan, Bangladesh, and Nepal, expressed condolences, noting his efforts to improve regional cooperation.

Public Mourning and Remembrance

Across India, citizens have gathered in prayer meetings, candlelight vigils, and public forums to honor Dr. Singh’s memory. Universities and research institutions are planning to establish chairs and scholarships in his name to inspire future generations of economists and policymakers.

Social media has been flooded with messages from people recounting how Dr. Singh’s reforms impacted their lives. From entrepreneurs crediting him for opening up markets to students inspired by his journey from a humble village in Punjab to the global stage, Dr. Singh’s legacy resonates deeply.

Remembering Dr. Singh: A Statesman Beyond Politics

Dr. Manmohan Singh’s career spanned academia, public service, and politics, yet he remained above partisan divides. Known for his dignified silence and composed demeanor, he often placed national interest above political considerations. Even when criticized, he responded with facts, reinforcing his reputation as a leader who preferred substance over rhetoric.

His Humble Beginnings

Born on September 26, 1932, in Gah, Punjab (now in Pakistan), Dr. Singh’s early life was marked by challenges. The partition of India displaced his family, but his determination and love for learning propelled him to academic excellence. After studying at Panjab University, Cambridge, and Oxford, he embarked on a career that would later change the course of India’s history.

A Prime Minister of Milestones

As Prime Minister, Dr. Singh introduced several flagship schemes:

• Mahatma Gandhi National Rural Employment Guarantee Act (MGNREGA): Aimed at providing livelihood to rural workers.
• Aadhaar Initiative: Laying the foundation for a universal identity system.
• RTI Act (Right to Information): Strengthening transparency and accountability in governance.
• Rural Electrification: Expanded access to electricity in remote areas, fostering development.

These programs transformed millions of lives, earning him respect as a leader deeply concerned about India’s marginalized communities.

Legacy and Lessons for Future Generations

Dr. Manmohan Singh’s life offers invaluable lessons in leadership:

• Integrity Matters: Despite political pressures, he maintained an unblemished record, emphasizing ethical governance.
• Economic Vision: His ability to foresee and implement policies in line with global trends set India on a path of sustained growth.
• Calm in Crisis: His measured approach during critical moments exemplified resilience and pragmatism.
• Focus on Education: Dr. Singh’s belief in the transformative power of education continues to inspire policies aimed at empowering India’s youth.

Final Journey and State Honors

Dr. Manmohan Singh’s funeral will take place with full state honors, reflecting the nation’s respect for a leader who dedicated his life to public service. Leaders, diplomats, and citizens are expected to attend, marking a solemn farewell to a towering figure in Indian and global history.

As the nation bids adieu to Dr. Singh, his words during the 1991 reforms echo poignantly:
“No power on earth can stop an idea whose time has come.”
Indeed, his time has left an indelible mark on India and the world.

A Life of Service: The Man Behind the Reforms

Dr. Manmohan Singh’s legacy is deeply intertwined with his journey from humble beginnings to the pinnacle of Indian politics. Born in Gah, a village in Punjab, his life story is one of perseverance, intellect, and service. His early years were marked by Partition, which displaced his family and left an indelible mark on his worldview.

Despite adversity, his academic brilliance shone through. A scholarship took him to the University of Cambridge, where he earned his economics degree, followed by a doctorate from Oxford University. His thesis on “India’s Export Trends and Prospects for Self-Sustained Growth” became a landmark study, reflecting his lifelong commitment to understanding and improving India’s economy.

The Reformer’s Journey

Dr. Singh’s entry into public service began with roles in academia and economic policymaking. As a bureaucrat, he held significant positions such as Chief Economic Advisor, Governor of the Reserve Bank of India, and Secretary of the Planning Commission. However, it was his role as Finance Minister in 1991 that catapulted him into the national spotlight.

Faced with a severe economic crisis, Dr. Singh introduced sweeping reforms to liberalize India’s economy. His policies, such as reducing trade barriers, encouraging foreign investment, and reforming taxation, set India on a path of rapid growth. He famously said during his budget speech,
“The emergence of India as a major economic power in the world happens to be one of the defining developments of our times.”

These reforms were not without opposition, but his clarity of vision and the support of then-Prime Minister P.V. Narasimha Rao ensured their implementation.

Two Terms as Prime Minister

As Prime Minister from 2004 to 2014, Dr. Singh steered India through transformative years. His tenure witnessed significant advancements in technology, infrastructure, and social welfare programs. Some notable achievements include:

• Civil Nuclear Agreement with the U.S.: Marking a new era in India’s global relations.
• GST and Tax Reforms: Initiating groundwork for uniform taxation systems.
• Expanding Rural Access: Electrification, healthcare, and employment schemes for rural India.
• Focus on Digital India: Strengthening India’s IT sector and broadband connectivity.

Despite political challenges, he remained a leader of quiet determination, often letting his actions speak louder than words.

Tributes to a Humble Statesman

Dr. Singh was renowned for his humility and soft-spoken nature. Even in the face of political attacks, he remained composed and focused on his goals for the country. His signature turban and calm demeanor became symbols of a leader who preferred diplomacy over confrontation.

Internationally, he was respected as an economist and statesman. Former U.S. President Barack Obama once referred to him as a leader with “integrity and vision,” and his contemporaries often turned to him for advice on global financial matters.

Final Farewell

The government has declared a seven-day national mourning in honor of Dr. Singh. Flags will fly at half-mast, and a state funeral will be held in New Delhi, attended by dignitaries from across the world.

Dr. Singh’s family, including his wife Gursharan Kaur and daughters Upinder, Daman, and Amrit Singh, have requested privacy as they mourn. Messages of condolences and admiration continue to pour in, with citizens sharing personal anecdotes about how his policies impacted their lives.

A Legacy Beyond Numbers

Dr. Manmohan Singh’s contributions go beyond economic metrics and political achievements. His emphasis on education, equality, and empowerment continues to inspire future generations. His ability to balance academia with real-world policymaking remains unparalleled.

As India mourns the loss of a visionary leader, it also celebrates the life of a man who believed in the power of ideas, the strength of perseverance, and the promise of a better tomorrow.

In his own words:
“Our deeds will outlive us. The future beckons to us. Let us not falter in responding to its call.”

Dr. Singh answered that call, leaving behind a legacy of hope, progress, and an unshakable belief in the resilience of the Indian spirit.

COURTESY: Firstpost

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    (c) Ludden 2014, p. 19, “In Punjab, a dry region with grasslands watered by five rivers (hence ‘panch’ and ‘ab’) draining the western Himalayas, one prehistoric culture left no material remains, but some of its ritual texts were preserved orally over the millennia. The culture is called Aryan, and evidence in its texts indicates that it spread slowly south-east, following the course of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. Its elite called itself Arya (pure) and distinguished themselves sharply from others. Aryans led kin groups organized as nomadic horse-herding tribes. Their ritual texts are called Vedas, composed in Sanskrit. Vedic Sanskrit is recorded only in hymns that were part of Vedic rituals to Aryan gods. To be Aryan apparently meant to belong to the elite among pastoral tribes. Texts that record Aryan culture are not precisely datable, but they seem to begin around 1200 BCE with four collections of Vedic hymns (Rg, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva).”;
    (d) Dyson 2018, pp. 14–15, “Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an ‘Aryan invasion’ it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family. […] It seems likely that various small-scale migrations were involved in the gradual introduction of the predecessor language and associated cultural characteristics. However, there may not have been a tight relationship between movements of people on the one hand, and changes in language and culture on the other. Moreover, the process whereby a dynamic new force gradually arose—a people with a distinct ideology who eventually seem to have referred to themselves as ‘Arya’—was certainly two-way. That is, it involved a blending of new features which came from outside with other features—probably including some surviving Harappan influences—that were already present. Anyhow, it would be quite a few centuries before Sanskrit was written down. And the hymns and stories of the Arya people—especially the Vedas and the later Mahabharata and Ramayana epics—are poor guides as to historical events. Of course, the emerging Arya were to have a huge impact on the history of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, little is known about their early presence.”;
    (e) Robb 2011, pp. 46–, “The expansion of Aryan culture is supposed to have begun around 1500 BCE. It should not be thought that this Aryan emergence (though it implies some migration) necessarily meant either a sudden invasion of new peoples, or a complete break with earlier traditions. It comprises a set of cultural ideas and practices, upheld by a Sanskrit-speaking elite, or Aryans. The features of this society are recorded in the Vedas.”
29. ^ (a) Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2020), The Rigveda, Oxford University Press, pp. 2, 4, ISBN 978-0-19-063339-4, The RgVeda is one of the four Vedas, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the earliest evidence for what will become Hinduism. (p. 2) Although Vedic religion is very different in many regards from what is known as Classical Hinduism, the seeds are there. Gods like Visnu and Siva (under the name Rudra), who will become so dominant later, are already present in the Rgveda, though in roles both lesser than and different from those they will later play, and the principal Rgvedic gods like Indra remain in later Hinduism, though in diminished capacity (p. 4).;
    (b) Flood, Gavin (2020), “Introduction”, in Gavin Flood (ed.), The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Practice: Hindu Practice, Oxford University Press, pp. 4–, ISBN 978-0-19-105322-1, I take the term ‘Hinduism to meaningfully denote a range and history of practice characterised by a number of features, particularly reference to Vedic textual and sacrificial origins, belonging to endogamous social units (jati/varna), participating in practices that involve making an offering to a deity and receiving a blessing (puja), and a first-level cultural polytheism (although many Hindus adhere to a second-level monotheism in which many gods are regarded as emanations or manifestations of the one, supreme being).;
    (c) Michaels, Axel (2017). Patrick Olivelle, Donald R. Davis (ed.). The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Law: A New History of Dharmaśāstra. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 86–97. ISBN 978-0-19-100709-5. Almost all traditional Hindu families observe until today at least three samskaras (initiation, marriage, and death ritual). Most other rituals have lost their popularity, are combined with other rites of passage, or are drastically shortened. Although samskaras vary from region to region, from class (varna) to class, and from caste to caste, their core elements remain the same owing to the common source, the Veda, and a common priestly tradition preserved by the Brahmin priests. (p 86)
    (d) Flood, Gavin D. (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0. It is this Sansrit, vedic, tradition which has maintained a continuity into modern times and which has provided the most important resource and inspiration for Hindu traditions and individuals. The Veda is the foundation for most later developments in what is known as Hinduism.
30. ^ Dyson 2018, pp. 16, 25
31. ^ Dyson 2018, p. 16
32. ^ Fisher 2018, p. 59
33. ^ (a) Dyson 2018, pp. 16–17;
    (b) Fisher 2018, p. 67;
    (c) Robb 2011, pp. 56–57;
    (d) Ludden 2014, pp. 29–30.
34. ^ (a) Ludden 2014, pp. 28–29;
    (b) Glenn Van Brummelen (2014), “Arithmetic”, in Thomas F. Glick; Steven Livesey; Faith Wallis (eds.), Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, pp. 46–48, ISBN 978-1-135-45932-1
35. ^ (a) Dyson 2018, p. 20;
    (b) Stein 2010, p. 90;
    (c) Ramusack, Barbara N. (1999), “Women in South Asia”, in Barbara N. Ramusack; Sharon L. Sievers (eds.), Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History, Indiana University Press, pp. 27–29, ISBN 0-253-21267-7
36. ^ Jump up to:^a b Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 93.
37. ^ Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 17
38. ^ (a) Ludden 2014, p. 54;
    (b) Asher & Talbot 2006, pp. 78–79;
    (c) Fisher 2018, p. 76
39. ^ (a) Ludden 2014, pp. 68–70;
    (b) Asher & Talbot 2006, pp. 19, 24
40. ^ (a) Dyson 2018, p. 48;
    (b) Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 52
41. ^ Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 74
42. ^ Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 267
43. ^ Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 152
44. ^ Jump up to:^a b Fisher 2018, p. 106
45. ^ (a) Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 289
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46. ^ Taylor, Miles (2016), “The British royal family and the colonial empire from the Georgians to Prince George”, in Aldrish, Robert; McCreery, Cindy (eds.), Crowns and Colonies: European Monarchies and Overseas Empires, Manchester University Press, pp. 38–39, ISBN 978-1-5261-0088-7
47. ^ Peers 2013, p. 76.
48. ^ Embree, Ainslie Thomas; Hay, Stephen N.; Bary, William Theodore De (1988), “Nationalism Takes Root: The Moderates”, Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India and Pakistan, Columbia University Press, p. 85, ISBN 978-0-231-06414-9
49. ^ Marshall, P. J. (2001), The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire, Cambridge University Press, p. 179, ISBN 978-0-521-00254-7, The first modern nationalist movement to arise in the non-European empire, and one that became an inspiration for many others, was the Indian Congress.
50. ^ Chiriyankandath, James (2016), Parties and Political Change in South Asia, Routledge, p. 2, ISBN 978-1-317-58620-3, South Asian parties include several of the oldest in the post-colonial world, foremost among them the 129-year-old Indian National Congress that led India to independence in 1947
51. ^ Fisher 2018, pp. 173–174: “The partition of South Asia that produced India and West and East Pakistan resulted from years of bitter negotiations and recriminations … The departing British also decreed that the hundreds of princes, who ruled one-third of the subcontinent and a quarter of its population, became legally independent, their status to be settled later. Geographical location, personal and popular sentiment, and substantial pressure and incentives from the new governments led almost all princes eventually to merge their domains into either Pakistan or India. … Each new government asserted its exclusive sovereignty within its borders, realigning all territories, animals, plants, minerals, and all other natural and human-made resources as either Pakistani or Indian property, to be used for its national development… Simultaneously, the central civil and military services and judiciary split roughly along religious ‘communal’ lines, even as they divided movable government assets according to a negotiated formula: 22.7 percent for Pakistan and 77.3 percent for India.”
52. ^ Chatterji, Joya; Washbrook, David (2013), “Introduction: Concepts and Questions”, in Chatterji, Joya; Washbrook, David (eds.), Routledge Handbook of the South Asian Diaspora, London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-48010-9, Joya Chatterji describes how the partition of the British Indian empire into the new nation states of India and Pakistan produced new diaspora on a vast, and hitherto unprecedented, scale, but hints that the sheer magnitude of refugee movements in South Asia after 1947 must be understood in the context of pre-existing migratory flows within the partitioned regions (see also Chatterji 2013). She also demonstrates that the new national states of India and Pakistan were quickly drawn into trying to stem this migration. As they put into place laws designed to restrict the return of partition emigrants, this produced new dilemmas for both new nations in their treatment of ‘overseas Indians’; and many of them lost their right to return to their places of origin in the subcontinent, and also their claims to full citizenship in host countries.
53. ^ Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partition of India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85661-4, archived from the original on 13 December 2016, retrieved 15 November 2015, When the British divided and quit India in August 1947, they not only partitioned the subcontinent with the emergence of the two nations of India and Pakistan but also the provinces of Punjab and Bengal. … Indeed for many the Indian subcontinent’s division in August 1947 is seen as a unique event which defies comparative historical and conceptual analysis
54. ^ Khan, Yasmin (2017) [2007], The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (2nd ed.), New Haven and London: Yale University Press, p. 1, ISBN 978-0-300-23032-1, South Asians learned that the British Indian empire would be partitioned on 3 June 1947. They heard about it on the radio, from relations and friends, by reading newspapers and, later, through government pamphlets. Among a population of almost four hundred million, where the vast majority live in the countryside, ploughing the land as landless peasants or sharecroppers, it is hardly surprising that many thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, did not hear the news for many weeks afterwards. For some, the butchery and forced relocation of the summer months of 1947 may have been the first that they knew about the creation of the two new states rising from the fragmentary and terminally weakened British empire in India
55. ^ (a) Copland 2001, pp. 71–78;
    (b) Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 222.
56. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, p. 327: “Even though much remains to be done, especially in regard to eradicating poverty and securing effective structures of governance, India’s achievements since independence in sustaining freedom and democracy have been singular among the world’s new nations.”
57. ^ Stein, Burton (2012), Arnold, David (ed.), A History of India, The Blackwell History of the World Series (2 ed.), Wiley-Blackwell, One of these is the idea of India as ‘the world’s largest democracy’, but a democracy forged less by the creation of representative institutions and expanding electorate under British rule than by the endeavours of India’s founding fathers – Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and Ambedkar – and the labours of the Constituent Assembly between 1946 and 1949, embodied in the Indian constitution of 1950. This democratic order, reinforced by the regular holding of nationwide elections and polling for the state assemblies, has, it can be argued, consistently underpinned a fundamentally democratic state structure – despite the anomaly of the Emergency and the apparent durability of the Gandhi-Nehru dynasty.
58. ^ Fisher 2018, pp. 184–185: “Since 1947, India’s internal disputes over its national identity, while periodically bitter and occasionally punctuated by violence, have been largely managed with remarkable and sustained commitment to national unity and democracy.”
59. ^ Dyson 2018, pp. 219, 262
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     (b) Chubb, Andrew (2021), “The Sino-Indian Border Crisis: Chinese Perceptions of Indian Nationalism”, in Golley, Jane; Jaivan, Linda; Strange, Sharon (eds.), Crisis, Australian National University Press, pp. 231–232, ISBN 978-1-76046-439-4, The ensuing cycle of escalation culminated in the 1962 Sino-Indian border war in which Mao Zedong’s troops overran almost the entire state of Arunachal Pradesh in the eastern sector before unilaterally withdrawing, as if to underline the insult; most of the war’s several thousand casualties were Indian. The PLA’s decisive victories in the 1962 war not only humiliated the Indian Army, they also entrenched a status quo in Ladakh that was highly unfavourable for India, in which China controls almost all of the disputed territory. A nationalistic press and commentariat have kept 1962 vivid in India’s popular consciousness.
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