Israel Launches E-Visa System for Indian Travelers Starting January 2025 -

“Israel launches e-Visa system for Indian travelers from January 1, 2025, simplifying visa applications with reduced documentation to boost tourism.”

In Short

Israel introduces e-Visa for Indians from 2025
Process is fully online via official portal
Group visas still need traditional process

Starting January 1, 2025, the Israel Ministry of Tourism (IMOT) has rolled out a new digital e-visa system for Indian travelers, marking a significant shift towards a more efficient and streamlined visa process. With this move, Israel aims to make the visa application experience faster and simpler for Indian citizens, while boosting tourism and strengthening bilateral ties between the two countries.

Indian travelers can now apply for an Israeli visa entirely online through Israel’s official government portal. The digital system eliminates the need for physical paperwork, reducing the documentation required and making the process far more convenient. This e-visa initiative is particularly beneficial for solo travelers, offering a hassle-free experience with faster processing times.

Israel’s move to implement this e-visa system reflects its commitment to enhancing accessibility for Indian tourists, ultimately encouraging more people to visit the country for tourism, business, and other purposes. With the simplification of the visa application process, Israel hopes to attract a larger number of visitors from India, a key market for global tourism.

The new e-visa system launched by the Israel Ministry of Tourism (IMOT) for Indian travelers, which became effective from January 1, 2025, offers a simplified and digitalized process for solo travelers, reducing paperwork and speeding up approval. However, group visa applications will still need to follow the traditional process, requiring physical documentation.

The e-Visa system is integrated with Israel’s Entry Travel Authorisation (ETA) platform, ensuring efficient processing and quick approvals for individual applicants. The platform is designed to be user-friendly and secure, meeting high standards of safety while providing an easy application process for travelers.

India holds significant importance for Israel’s tourism sector. In 2018, Israel saw a record 70,800 Indian visitors. Although the COVID-19 pandemic temporarily slowed down international travel, Indian tourist arrivals began to recover in 2022, with 30,900 visitors. This upward trend continued in 2023 with 41,800 arrivals, and it is expected that approximately 8,500 Indian visitors will travel to Israel between January and October 2024.

This new e-visa initiative is expected to further boost the tourism exchange between India and Israel, attracting more individual travelers and encouraging smoother travel experiences for those wishing to visit the country.

Currently, the e-Visa system is exclusively available to Indian nationals, but there are plans for expansion to include travelers from other countries in the future. This move is part of Israel’s broader strategy to enhance its appeal as a modern, accessible, and tourist-friendly destination, aiming to streamline the visa application process for a wider range of international visitors. With this initiative, Israel hopes to further strengthen its position as a top travel destination and boost tourism from diverse markets across the globe.

The e-Visa system is expected to not only make the visa application process more convenient for Indian travelers but also contribute to the growth of Israel’s tourism sector. By eliminating the need for physical paperwork and offering faster processing times, the system provides a hassle-free experience for travelers, encouraging more people to visit Israel.

Israel’s focus on strengthening ties with India is evident, and this move is a significant step toward attracting even more visitors. The country has been working on enhancing its tourism infrastructure and services to cater to an increasing number of international tourists, particularly from emerging markets like India.

Moreover, the launch of the e-Visa system aligns with global trends in digitalization and the growing demand for more efficient and tech-savvy travel solutions. As tourism continues to recover post-pandemic, Israel’s innovative approach to visa applications is set to position it as a leader in offering seamless travel experiences for Indian tourists, and potentially for other countries in the future.

Israel’s tourism authorities are hopeful that this initiative will boost the number of visitors and contribute significantly to the local economy, while also highlighting Israel as a forward-thinking, welcoming destination for tourists.

courtesy: Travel Man Today

References

^ Recognition by other UN member states: Russia (West Jerusalem),^[1] the Czech Republic (West Jerusalem),^[2] Honduras,^[3] Guatemala,^[4] Nauru,^[5] and the United States.^[6]
^ Jerusalem is Israel’s largest city if including East Jerusalem, which is widely recognized as occupied territory.^[7] If East Jerusalem is not counted, the largest city would be Tel Aviv.
^ Arabic has a “special status” as set by the Basic Law of 2018, which allows it to be used by official institutions.^[9]^[10] Prior to that law’s passage, Arabic had been an official language alongside Hebrew.^[11]
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Israeli population and economic data covers the economic territory of Israel, including the Golan Heights, East Jerusalem and Israeli settlements in the West Bank.^[338]^[339]
^ The personal name “Israel” appears much earlier, in material from Ebla.^[48]

^ /ˈɪzri.əl, -reɪ-/; Hebrew: יִשְׂרָאֵל, romanized: Yīsrāʾēl [jisʁaˈʔel]; Arabic: إِسْرَائِيل, romanized: ʾIsrāʾīl
^ Hebrew: מְדִינַת יִשְׂרָאֵל, romanised: Medīnat Yīsrāʾēl [mediˈnat jisʁaˈʔel]; Arabic: دَوْلَة إِسْرَائِيل, romanised: Dawlat Isrāʾīl
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^ Cleveland, William L.; Bunton, Martin (2016). A History of the Modern Middle East. Westview Press. p. 270. ISBN 978-0-429-97513-4. Not only was there no Palestinian Arab state, but the vast majority of the Arab population in the territory that became Israel-over 700,000 people-had become refugees. The Arab flight from Palestine began during the intercommunal war and was at first the normal reaction of a civilian population to nearby fighting-a temporary evacuation from the zone of combat with plans to return once hostilities ceased. However, during spring and early summer 1948, the flight of the Palestinian Arabs was transformed into a permanent mass exodus… .
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^ K.L. Noll, Canaan and Israel in Antiquity: A Textbook on History and Religion, A&C Black, 2012, rev.ed. pp. 137ff.
^ Thomas L. Thompson, Early History of the Israelite People: From the Written & Archaeological Sources, Brill, 2000 pp. 275–276
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* Bertman, Stephen (14 July 2005). Handbook to Life in Ancient Mesopotamia. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518364-1.
* Meindert Dijkstra (2010). “Origins of Israel between history and ideology”. In Becking, Bob; Grabbe, Lester (eds.). Between Evidence and Ideology Essays on the History of Ancient Israel read at the Joint Meeting of the Society for Old Testament Study and the Oud Testamentisch Werkgezelschap Lincoln Nebraska, July 2009. Brill. p. 47. ISBN 978-90-04-18737-5. As a West Semitic personal name it existed long before it became a tribal or a geographical name. This is not without significance, though is it rarely mentioned. We learn of a maryanu named ysr”il (*Yi¡sr—a”ilu) from Ugarit living in the same period, but the name was already used a thousand years before in Ebla. The word Israel originated as a West Semitic personal name. One of the many names that developed into the name of the ancestor of a clan, of a tribe and finally of a people and a nation.
^ Lemche, Niels Peter (1998). The Israelites in History and Tradition. Westminster John Knox Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-664-22727-2.
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^ Dever, William G. Beyond the Texts, Society of Biblical Literature Press, 2017, pp. 89–93
^ S. Richard, “Archaeological sources for the history of Palestine: The Early Bronze Age: The rise and collapse of urbanism”, The Biblical Archaeologist (1987)
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^ Rendsberg, Gary (2008). “Israel without the Bible”. In Frederick E. Greenspahn. The Hebrew Bible: New Insights and Scholarship. NYU Press, pp. 3–5
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^ Steiner, Richard C. (1997), “Ancient Hebrew”, in Hetzron, Robert (ed.), The Semitic Languages, Routledge, pp. 145–173, ISBN 978-0-415-05767-7
^ Killebrew 2005, p. 230.
^ Shahin 2005, p. 6.
^ Faust 2015, p. 476: “While there is a consensus among scholars that the Exodus did not take place in the manner described in the Bible, surprisingly most scholars agree that the narrative has a historical core, and that some of the highland settlers came, one way or another, from Egypt.”
^ Redmount 2001, p. 61: “A few authorities have concluded that the core events of the Exodus saga are entirely literary fabrications. But most biblical scholars still subscribe to some variation of the Documentary Hypothesis, and support the basic historicity of the biblical narrative.”
^ Lipschits, Oded (2014). “The History of Israel in the Biblical Period”. In Berlin, Adele; Brettler, Marc Zvi (eds.). The Jewish Study Bible (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-997846-5. Archived from the original on 9 April 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
^ Kuhrt, Amiele (1995). The Ancient Near East. Routledge. p. 438. ISBN 978-0-415-16762-8.
^ Finkelstein, Israel; Silberman, Neil Asher (2001). The Bible unearthed: archaeology’s new vision of ancient Israel and the origin of its stories (1st Touchstone ed.). Simon & Schuster. ISBN 978-0-684-86912-4.
^ Finkelstein, Israel, (2020). “Saul and Highlands of Benjamin Update: The Role of Jerusalem”, in Joachim J. Krause, Omer Sergi, and Kristin Weingart (eds.), Saul, Benjamin, and the Emergence of Monarchy in Israel: Biblical and Archaeological Perspectives, SBL Press, Atlanta, GA, p. 48, footnote 57: “…They became territorial kingdoms later, Israel in the first half of the ninth century BCE and Judah in its second half…”
^ The Pitcher Is Broken: Memorial Essays for Gosta W. Ahlstrom, Steven W. Holloway, Lowell K. Handy, Continuum, 1 May 1995 Archived 9 April 2023 at the Wayback Machine Quote: “For Israel, the description of the battle of Qarqar in the Kurkh Monolith of Shalmaneser III (mid-ninth century) and for Judah, a Tiglath-pileser III text mentioning (Jeho-) Ahaz of Judah (IIR67 = K. 3751), dated 734–733, are the earliest published to date.”
^ Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, pp. 146–147: Put simply, while Judah was still economically marginal and backward, Israel was booming. … In the next chapter we will see how the northern kingdom suddenly appeared on the ancient Near Eastern stage as a major regional power.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Finkelstein, Israel (2013). The Forgotten Kingdom: the archaeology and history of Northern Israel. pp. 65–66, 73, 74, 78, 87–94. ISBN 978-1-58983-911-3. OCLC 880456140.
^ Finkelstein, Israel (1 November 2011). “Observations on the Layout of Iron Age Samaria”. Tel Aviv. 38 (2): 194–207. doi:10.1179/033443511×13099584885303. ISSN 0334-4355. S2CID 128814117.
^ Broshi, Maguen (2001). Bread, Wine, Walls and Scrolls. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 174. ISBN 978-1-84127-201-6. Archived from the original on 10 February 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Broshi, M., & Finkelstein, I. (1992). “The Population of Palestine in Iron Age II” Archived 5 March 2023 at the Wayback Machine. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 287(1), 47–60.
^ Finkelstein & Silberman 2002, p. 307: “Intensive excavations throughout Jerusalem have shown that the city was indeed systematically destroyed by the Babylonians. The conflagration seems to have been general. When activity on the ridge of the City of David resumed in the Persian period, the-new suburbs on the western hill that had flourished since at least the time of Hezekiah were not reoccupied.”
^ Lipschits, Oded (1999). “The History of the Benjamin Region under Babylonian Rule”. Tel Aviv. 26 (2): 155–190. doi:10.1179/tav.1999.1999.2.155. ISSN 0334-4355.
^ Wheeler, P. (2017). “Review of the book Song of Exile: The Enduring Mystery of Psalm 137, by David W. Stowe”. The Catholic Biblical Quarterly. 79 (4): 696–697. doi:10.1353/cbq.2017.0092. S2CID 171830838.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b “Second Temple Period (538 BCE to 70 CE) Persian Rule”. Biu.ac.il. Archived from the original on 16 January 1999. Retrieved 15 March 2014.
^ Harper’s Bible Dictionary, ed. by Achtemeier, etc., Harper & Row, San Francisco, 1985, p. 103
^ Grabbe, Lester L. (2004). A History of the Jews and Judaism in the Second Temple Period: Yehud – A History of the Persian Province of Judah v. 1. T & T Clark. p. 355. ISBN 978-0-567-08998-4. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
^ Helyer, Larry R.; McDonald, Lee Martin (2013). “The Hasmoneans and the Hasmonean Era”. In Green, Joel B.; McDonald, Lee Martin (eds.). The World of the New Testament: Cultural, Social, and Historical Contexts. Baker Academic. pp. 45–47. ISBN 978-0-8010-9861-1. OCLC 961153992. The ensuing power struggle left Hyrcanus with a free hand in Judea, and he quickly reasserted Jewish sovereignty… Hyrcanus then engaged in a series of military campaigns aimed at territorial expansion. He first conquered areas in the Transjordan. He then turned his attention to Samaria, which had long separated Judea from the northern Jewish settlements in Lower Galilee. In the south, Adora and Marisa were conquered; (Aristobulus’) primary accomplishment was annexing and Judaizing the region of Iturea, located between the Lebanon and Anti-Lebanon mountains
^ Ben-Sasson, H.H. (1976). A History of the Jewish People. Harvard University Press. p. 226. ISBN 978-0-674-39731-6. The expansion of Hasmonean Judea took place gradually. Under Jonathan, Judea annexed southern Samaria and began to expand in the direction of the coast plain… The main ethnic changes were the work of John Hyrcanus… it was in his days and those of his son Aristobulus that the annexation of Idumea, Samaria and Galilee and the consolidation of Jewish settlement in Trans-Jordan was completed. Alexander Jannai, continuing the work of his predecessors, expanded Judean rule to the entire coastal plain, from the Carmel to the Egyptian border… and to additional areas in Trans-Jordan, including some of the Greek cities there.
^ Ben-Eliyahu, Eyal (30 April 2019). Identity and Territory: Jewish Perceptions of Space in Antiquity. Univ of California Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-520-29360-1. OCLC 1103519319. From the beginning of the Second Temple period until the Muslim conquest—the land was part of imperial space. This was true from the early Persian period, as well as the time of Ptolemy and the Seleucids. The only exception was the Hasmonean Kingdom, with its sovereign Jewish rule—first over Judah and later, in Alexander Jannaeus’s prime, extending to the coast, the north, and the eastern banks of the Jordan.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Schwartz, Seth (2014). The ancient Jews from Alexander to Muhammad. Cambridge University Press. pp. 85–86. ISBN 978-1-107-04127-1. OCLC 863044259. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2024. The year 70 ce marked transformations in demography, politics, Jewish civic status, Palestinian and more general Jewish economic and social structures, Jewish religious life beyond the sacrificial cult, and even Roman politics and the topography of the city of Rome itself. […] The Revolt’s failure had, to begin with, a demographic impact on the Jews of Palestine; many died in battle and as a result of siege conditions, not only in Jerusalem. […] As indicated above, the figures for captives are conceivably more reliable. If 97,000 is roughly correct as a total for the war, it would mean that a huge percentage of the population was removed from the country, or at the very least displaced from their homes.
^ Werner Eck, “Sklaven und Freigelassene von Römern in Iudaea und den angrenzenden Provinzen”, Novum Testamentum 55 (2013): 1–21
^ Raviv, Dvir; Ben David, Chaim (2021). “Cassius Dio’s figures for the demographic consequences of the Bar Kokhba War: Exaggeration or reliable account?”. Journal of Roman Archaeology. 34 (2): 585–607. doi:10.1017/S1047759421000271. ISSN 1047-7594. S2CID 245512193. Scholars have long doubted the historical accuracy of Cassius Dio’s account of the consequences of the Bar Kokhba War (Roman History 69.14). According to this text, considered the most reliable literary source for the Second Jewish Revolt, the war encompassed all of Judea: the Romans destroyed 985 villages and 50 fortresses, and killed 580,000 rebels. This article reassesses Cassius Dio’s figures by drawing on new evidence from excavations and surveys in Judea, Transjordan, and the Galilee. Three research methods are combined: an ethno-archaeological comparison with the settlement picture in the Ottoman Period, comparison with similar settlement studies in the Galilee, and an evaluation of settled sites from the Middle Roman Period (70–136 CE). The study demonstrates the potential contribution of the archaeological record to this issue and supports the view of Cassius Dio’s demographic data as a reliable account, which he based on contemporaneous documentation.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Mor, Menahem (18 April 2016). The Second Jewish Revolt. BRILL. pp. 483–484. doi:10.1163/9789004314634. ISBN 978-90-04-31463-4. Land confiscation in Judaea was part of the suppression of the revolt policy of the Romans and punishment for the rebels. But the very claim that the sikarikon laws were annulled for settlement purposes seems to indicate that Jews continued to reside in Judaea even after the Second Revolt. There is no doubt that this area suffered the severest damage from the suppression of the revolt. Settlements in Judaea, such as Herodion and Bethar, had already been destroyed during the course of the revolt, and Jews were expelled from the districts of Gophna, Herodion, and Aqraba. However, it should not be claimed that the region of Judaea was completely destroyed. Jews continued to live in areas such as Lod (Lydda), south of the Hebron Mountain, and the coastal regions. In other areas of the Land of Israel that did not have any direct connection with the Second Revolt, no settlement changes can be identified as resulting from it.
^ Oppenheimer, A’haron and Oppenheimer, Nili. Between Rome and Babylon: Studies in Jewish Leadership and Society. Mohr Siebeck, 2005, p. 2.
^ H.H. Ben-Sasson, A History of the Jewish People, Harvard University Press, 1976, ISBN 978-0-674-39731-6, page 334: “In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature.”
^ Ariel Lewin. The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. “It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name – one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus – Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land.” ISBN 978-0-89236-800-6
^ Eusebius, Ecclesiastical History. 4:6.3-4
^ Cohn-Sherbok, Dan (1996). Atlas of Jewish History. Routledge. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-415-08800-8.
^ Lehmann, Clayton Miles (18 January 2007). “Palestine”. Encyclopedia of the Roman Provinces. University of South Dakota. Archived from the original on 7 April 2013. Retrieved 9 February 2013.
^ Judaism in late antiquity, Jacob Neusner, Bertold Spuler, Hady R Idris, Brill, 2001, p. 155
^ הר, משה דוד (2022). “היהודים בארץ-ישראל בימי האימפריה הרומית הנוצרית” [The Jews in the Land of Israel in the Days of the Christian Roman Empire]. ארץ-ישראל בשלהי העת העתיקה: מבואות ומחקרים [Eretz Israel in Late Antiquity: Introductions and Studies] (in Hebrew). Vol. 1. ירושלים: יד יצחק בן-צבי. pp. 210–212. ISBN 978-965-217-444-4.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Ehrlich, Michael (2022). The Islamization of the Holy Land, 634–1800. Arc Humanities Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978-1-64189-222-3. OCLC 1302180905. The Jewish community strove to recover from the catastrophic results of the Bar Kokhva revolt (132–135 CE). Although some of these attempts were relatively successful, the Jews never fully recovered. During the Late Roman and Byzantine periods, many Jews emigrated to thriving centres in the diaspora, especially Iraq, whereas some converted to Christianity and others continued to live in the Holy Land, especially in Galilee and the coastal plain. During the Byzantine period, the three provinces of Palestine included more than thirty cities, namely, settlements with a bishop see. After the Muslim conquest in the 630s, most of these cities declined and eventually disappeared. As a result, in many cases the local ecclesiastical administration weakened, while in others it simply ceased to exist. Consequently, many local Christians converted to Islam. Thus, almost twelve centuries later, when the army led by Napoleon Bonaparte arrived in the Holy Land, most of the local population was Muslim.
^ David Goodblatt (2006). “The Political and Social History of the Jewish Community in the Land of Israel, c. 235–638”. In Steven Katz (ed.). The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. IV. Cambridge University Press. pp. 404–430. ISBN 978-0-521-77248-8. Few would disagree that, in the century and a half before our period begins, the Jewish population of Judah () suffered a serious blow from which it never recovered. The destruction of the Jewish metropolis of Jerusalem and its environs and the eventual refounding of the city… had lasting repercussions. […] However, in other parts of Palestine the Jewish population remained strong […] What does seem clear is a different kind of change. Immigration of Christians and the conversion of pagans, Samaritans and Jews eventually produced a Christian majority
^ Bar, Doron (2003). “The Christianisation of Rural Palestine during Late Antiquity”. The Journal of Ecclesiastical History. 54 (3): 401–421. doi:10.1017/s0022046903007309. ISSN 0022-0469. The dominant view of the history of Palestine during the Byzantine period links the early phases of the consecration of the land during the fourth century and the substantial external financial investment that accompanied the building of churches on holy sites on the one hand with the Christianisation of the population on the other. Churches were erected primarily at the holy sites, 12 while at the same time Palestine’s position and unique status as the Christian ‘Holy Land’ became more firmly rooted. All this, coupled with immigration and conversion, allegedly meant that the Christianisation of Palestine took place much more rapidly than that of other areas of the Roman empire, brought in its wake the annihilation of the pagan cults and meant that by the middle of the fifth century there was a clear Christian majority.
^ Kohen, Elli (2007). History of the Byzantine Jews: A Microcosmos in the Thousand Year Empire. University Press of America. pp. 26–31. ISBN 978-0-7618-3623-0. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
^ “Roman Palestine”. Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 30 October 2023. Retrieved 30 March 2023.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b לוי-רובין, מילכה; Levy-Rubin, Milka (2006). “The Influence of the Muslim Conquest on the Settlement Pattern of Palestine during the Early Muslim Period / הכיבוש כמעצב מפת היישוב של ארץ-ישראל בתקופה המוסלמית הקדומה”. Cathedra: For the History of Eretz Israel and Its Yishuv / קתדרה: לתולדות ארץ ישראל ויישובה (121): 53–78. ISSN 0334-4657. JSTOR 23407269.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Ellenblum, Ronnie (2010). Frankish Rural Settlement in the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-511-58534-0. OCLC 958547332. From the data given above it can be concluded that the Muslim population of Central Samaria, during the early Muslim period, was not an autochthonous population which had converted to Christianity. They arrived there either by way of migration or as a result of a process of sedentarization of the nomads who had filled the vacuum created by the departing Samaritans at the end of the Byzantine period […] To sum up: in the only rural region in Palestine in which, according to all the written and archeological sources, the process of Islamization was completed already in the twelfth century, there occurred events consistent with the model propounded by Levtzion and Vryonis: the region was abandoned by its original sedentary population and the vacuum was apparently filled by nomads who, at a later stage, gradually became sedentarized
^ Gil, Moshe (1997). A History of Palestine, 634–1099. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-59984-9.
^ Broshi, Magen (1979). “The Population of Western Palestine in the Roman-Byzantine Period”. Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research. 236 (236): 1–10. doi:10.2307/1356664. ISSN 0003-097X. JSTOR 1356664. S2CID 24341643.
^ “crusades”. Oxford English Dictionary (Online ed.). Oxford University Press. (Subscription or participating institution membership required.)
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Kramer, Gudrun (2008). A History of Palestine: From the Ottoman Conquest to the Founding of the State of Israel. Princeton University Press. p. 376. ISBN 978-0-691-11897-0.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Joel Rappel, History of Eretz Israel from Prehistory up to 1882 (1980), vol. 2, p. 531. “In 1662 Sabbathai Sevi arrived to Jerusalem. It was the time when the Jewish settlements of Galilee were destroyed by the Druze: Tiberias was completely desolate and only a few of former Safed residents had returned….”
^ D. Tamar, “On the Jews of Safed in the Days of the Ottoman Conquest” Cathedra 11 (1979), cited Dan Ben Amos, Dov Noy (eds.),Folktales of the Jews, V. 3 (Tales from Arab Lands), Jewish Publication Society 2011 p.61, n.3: Tamar . .challenges David’s conclusion concerning the severity of the riots against the Jews, arguing that the support of the Egyptian Jews saved the community of Safed from destruction’.
^ The Solomon Goldman lectures. Spertus College of Judaica Press. 1999. p. 56. ISBN 978-0-935982-57-2. The Turks’ conquest of the city in 1517, was marked by a violent pogrom of murder, rape, and plunder of Jewish homes. The surviving Jews fled to the “land of Beirut“, not to return until 1533.
^ Toby Green (2007). Inquisition; The Reign of Fear. Macmillan Press ISBN 978-1-4050-8873-2 pp. xv–xix.
^ Alfassá, Shelomo (17 August 2007). “Sephardic Contributions to the Development of the State of Israel” (PDF). Alfassa.com. Archived from the original on 12 October 2007. Retrieved 14 January 2015.
^ Cane, Peter; Conaghan, Joanne (2008). Millet system – Oxford Reference. doi:10.1093/acref/9780199290543.001.0001. ISBN 9780199290543.
^ Kieser, Hans-Lukas (27 October 2006). Turkey Beyond Nationalism: Towards Post-Nationalist Identities. I.B.Tauris. ISBN 978-0-85771-757-3.
^ H. Inalcik; The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600, Phoenix Press, (2001)
^ “EARLY MODERN JEWISH HISTORY: Overview » 5. Ottoman Empire”. jewishhistory.research.wesleyan.edu. Archived from the original on 28 September 2020. Retrieved 24 November 2018.
^ Akbar, M. J. (2003), The shade of swords: jihad and the conflict between Islam and Christianity, p. 89
^ L. Stavrianos; The Balkans since 1453, NYU Press (2000)
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Avineri 2017.
^ Shimoni 1995.
^ Eisen, Yosef (2004). Miraculous journey: a complete history of the Jewish people from creation to the present. Targum Press. p. 700. ISBN 978-1-56871-323-6.
^ Morgenstern, Arie (2006). Hastening redemption: Messianism and the resettlement of the land of Israel. Oxford University Press. p. 304. ISBN 978-0-19-530578-4.
^ Barnai, Jacob (1992). The Jews in Palestine in the Eighteenth Century: Under the Patronage of the Istanbul committee of Officials for Palestine. University Alabama Press. p. 320. ISBN 978-0-8173-0572-7.
^ “Palestine – Ottoman rule”. Encyclopedia Britannica. Archived from the original on 4 December 2021. Retrieved 27 November 2018.
^ Macalister, R. A. Stewart; Masterman, E. W. G. (1906). “The Modern Inhabitants of Palestine”. Quarterly Statement – Palestine Exploration Fund: 40.
^ Halpern, Ben (1998). Zionism and the creation of a new society. Reinharz, Jehuda. Oxford University Press. pp. 53–54. ISBN 978-0-585-18273-5. OCLC 44960036.
^ Mandel, Neville J. (1974). “Ottoman Policy and Restrictions on Jewish Settlement in Palestine: 1881–1908: Part I” (PDF). Middle Eastern Studies. 10 (3): 312–332. doi:10.1080/00263207408700278. ISSN 0026-3206. Archived (PDF) from the original on 3 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2023.
^ Levine, Aaron (2014). Russian Jews and the 1917 Revolution (PDF). p. 14. Archived (PDF) from the original on 8 March 2023. Retrieved 7 December 2023.
^ Herzl 1946, p. 11.
^ Stein 2003, p. 88. “As with the First Aliyah, most Second Aliyah migrants were non-Zionist orthodox Jews …”
^ Moris, Beni (2001). Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881 – 2001 (1. Vintage Books ed.). New York, NY: Vintage Books. ISBN 9780679744757. Many of these newcomers possessed a mixture of socialist and nationalist values, and they eventually succeeded in setting up a separate Jewish economy, based wholly on Jewish labor.
^ Romano 2003, p. 30.
^ Moris, Beni (2001). Righteous victims: a history of the Zionist-Arab conflict, 1881 – 2001 (1. Vintage Books ed.). New York, NY: Vintage Books. ISBN 9780679744757. Another major cause of antagonism was the labor controversy. The hard core of Second Aliyah socialists, who were to become the Yishuv’s leaders in the 1920s and 1930s, believed that the settler economy must not depend on or exploit Arab labor… But, in reality, rather than “meshing,” the nationalist ethos had simply overpowered and driven out the socialist ethos… There were other reasons for the “conquest of labor.” The socialists of the Second Aliyah used the term to denote three things: overcoming the Jews’ traditional remove from agricultural labor and helping them transform into the “new Jews”; struggling against employers for better conditions; and replacing Arabs with Jews in manual jobs.
^ Gelvin, James (2014) [2002]. The Israel-Palestine Conflict: One Hundred Years of War (3 ed.). Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-85289-0. Archived from the original on 9 October 2023. Retrieved 9 November 2020.
^ Macintyre, Donald (26 May 2005). “The birth of modern Israel: A scrap of paper that changed history”. The Independent. Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
^ Yapp, M.E. (1987). The Making of the Modern Near East 1792–1923. Longman. p. 290. ISBN 978-0-582-49380-3.
^ Avi Shlaim (2001). “PROLOGUE: THE ZIONIST FOUNDATIONS”. The Iron Wall. W.W. Norton. ISBN 978-0-393-32112-8. Archived from the original on 3 April 2024. Retrieved 4 February 2024.
^ Schechtman, Joseph B. (2007). “Jewish Legion”. Encyclopaedia Judaica. Vol. 11. Macmillan Reference. p. 304. Archived from the original on 8 March 2021. Retrieved 6 August 2014.
^ “The Covenant of the League of Nations”. Article 22. Archived from the original on 26 July 2011. Retrieved 18 October 2012.
^ “Mandate for Palestine,” Encyclopaedia Judaica, Vol. 11, p. 862, Keter Publishing House, Jerusalem, 1972
^ Scharfstein 1996, p. 269. “During the First and Second Aliyot, there were many Arab attacks against Jewish settlements … In 1920, Hashomer was disbanded and Haganah (“The Defense”) was established.”
^ “League of Nations: The Mandate for Palestine, July 24, 1922”. Modern History Sourcebook. 24 July 1922. Archived from the original on 4 August 2011. Retrieved 27 August 2007.
^ Shaw, J. V. W. (1991) [1946]. “Chapter VI: Population”. A Survey of Palestine: Prepared in December 1945 and January 1946 for the information of the Anglo-American Committee of Inquiry. Vol. I (Reprint ed.). Institute for Palestine Studies. p. 148. ISBN 978-0-88728-213-3. OCLC 311797790. Archived from the original on 27 August 2013.
^ “Report to the League of Nations on Palestine and Transjordan, 1937”. British Government. 1937. Archived from the original on 23 September 2013. Retrieved 14 July 2013.
^ Walter Laqueur (2009). A History of Zionism: From the French Revolution to the Establishment of the State of Israel. Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group. ISBN 978-0-307-53085-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 15 October 2015.
^ Hughes, M (2009). “The banality of brutality: British armed forces and the repression of the Arab Revolt in Palestine, 1936–39” (PDF). English Historical Review. CXXIV (507): 314–354. doi:10.1093/ehr/cep002. Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 February 2016.
^ Levenberg, Haim (1993). Military Preparations of the Arab Community in Palestine: 1945–1948. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-3439-5, pp. 74–76
^ Khalidi, Walid (1987). From Haven to Conquest: Readings in Zionism and the Palestine Problem Until 1948. Institute for Palestine Studies. ISBN 978-0-88728-155-6
^ Government of Palestine, Department of Statistics, Village Statistics, 1945.
^ Fraser 2004, p. 27.
^ Motti Golani (2013). Palestine Between Politics and Terror, 1945–1947. UPNE. p. 130. ISBN 978-1-61168-388-2. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
^ Cohen, Michael J (2014). Britain’s Moment in Palestine:Retrospect and Perspectives, 1917–1948 (1st ed.). Routledge. p. 474. ISBN 978-0-415-72985-7. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018.
^
- Smith, Paul J. (2007). The Terrorism Ahead: Confronting Transnational Violence in the Twenty-First. M. E. Sharpe. p. 27.
- Louis, William Roger (1986). The British Empire in the Middle East, 1945–1951: Arab Nationalism, the United States, and Postwar Imperialism. Oxford University Press. p. 430.
- Kushner, Harvey W. (2003). Encyclopedia of Terrorism. SAGE Publications. p. 181.
^ Encyclopædia Britannica Archived 17 April 2015 at the Wayback Machine article on the Irgun Zvai Leumi
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Clarke, Thurston. By Blood and Fire, G.P. Puttnam’s Sons, 1981
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Bethell, Nicholas (1979). The Palestine Triangle. Andre Deutsch.
^ “A/RES/106 (S-1)”. General Assembly resolution. United Nations. 15 May 1947. Archived from the original on 6 August 2012. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
^ “A/364”. Special Committee on Palestine. United Nations. 3 September 1947. Archived from the original on 10 June 2012. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
^ “Background Paper No. 47 (ST/DPI/SER.A/47)”. United Nations. 20 April 1949. Archived from the original on 3 January 2011. Retrieved 31 July 2007.
^ Hoffman, Bruce: Anonymous Soldiers (2015)
^ “British Colonial Office Statement upon Termination of the Mandate for Palestine – English (1948)”. ecf.org.il. p. 10. Retrieved 20 June 2024.
^ “Resolution 181 (II). Future government of Palestine”. United Nations. 29 November 1947. Archived from the original on 10 October 2017. Retrieved 21 March 2017.
^
- Avneri, Aryeh L. (1984). The Claim of Dispossession: Jewish Land-Settlement and the Arabs, 1878–1948. Transaction Publishers. ISBN 978-0-87855-964-0. Retrieved 2 May 2009, p. 224.
- Stein, Kenneth W. (1987) [Original in 1984]. The Land Question in Palestine, 1917–1939. University of North Carolina Press. ISBN 978-0-8078-4178-5. pp. 3–4, 247
- Imseis 2021, pp. 13–14: “As to territorial boundaries, under the plan the Jewish State was allotted approximately 57 percent of the total area of Palestine even though the Jewish population comprised only 33 percent of the country. In addition, according to British records relied upon by the ad hoc committee, the Jewish population possessed registered ownership of only 5.6 percent of Palestine, and was eclipsed by the Arabs in land ownership in every one of Palestine’s 16 sub-districts. Moreover, the quality of the land granted to the proposed Jewish state was highly skewed in its favour. UNSCOP reported that under its majority plan “[t]he Jews will have the more economically developed part of the country embracing practically the whole of the citrus-producing area”—Palestine’s staple export crop—even though approximately half of the citrus-bearing land was owned by the Arabs. In addition, according to updated British records submitted to the ad hoc committee’s two sub-committees, “of the irrigated, cultivable areas” of the country, 84 per cent would be in the Jewish State and 16 per cent would be in the Arab State”.”
- Morris 2008, p. 75: “The night of 29–30 November passed in the Yishuv’s settlements in noisy public rejoicing. Most had sat glued to their radio sets broadcasting live from Flushing Meadow. A collective cry of joy went up when the two-thirds mark was achieved: a state had been sanctioned by the international community.”
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Morris 2008, p. 396: “The immediate trigger of the 1948 War was the November 1947 UN partition resolution. The Zionist movement, except for its fringes, accepted the proposal.”
^ Matthews, John: Israel-Palestine land division Archived 5 October 2023 at the Wayback Machine
^ Imseis 2021, pp. 14–15: ‘Although the Zionists had coveted the whole of Palestine, the Jewish Agency leadership pragmatically, if grudgingly, accepted Resolution 181(II). Although they were of the view that the Jewish national home promised in the Mandate was equivalent to a Jewish state, they well understood that such a claim could not be maintained under prevailing international law..Based on its own terms, it is impossible to escape the conclusion that the partition plan privileged European interests over those of Palestine’s indigenous people and, as such, was an embodiment of the Eurocentricity of the international system that was allegedly a thing of the past. For this reason, the Arabs took a more principled position in line with prevailing international law, rejecting partition outright . .This rejection has disingenuously been presented in some of the literature as indicative of political intransigence,69 and even hostility towards the Jews as Jews’
^ Morris 2008, p. 66: at 1946 “The League demanded independence for Palestine as a “unitary” state, with an Arab majority and minority rights for the Jews.”, p. 67: at 1947 “The League’s Political Committee met in Sofar, Lebanon, on 16–19 September, and urged the Palestine Arabs to fight partition, which it called “aggression,” “without mercy.” The League promised them, in line with Bludan, assistance “in manpower, money and equipment” should the United Nations endorse partition.”, p. 72: at December 1947 “The League vowed, in very general language, “to try to stymie the partition plan and prevent the establishment of a Jewish state in Palestine.””
^ Bregman 2002, pp. 40–41.
^ Gelber, Yoav (2006). Palestine 1948. Sussex Academic Press. p. 17. ISBN 978-1-902210-67-4.
^ Morris 2008, p. 77–78.
^ Tal, David (2003). War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy. Routledge. p. 471. ISBN 978-0-7146-5275-7.
^ Clifford, Clark, “Counsel to the President: A Memoir”, 1991, p. 20.
^ Ben-Sasson 1985, p. 1058.
^ Morris 2008, p. 205.
^ Rabinovich, Itamar; Reinharz, Jehuda (2007). Israel in the Middle East: Documents and Readings on Society, Politics, and Foreign Relations, Pre-1948 to the Present. Brandeis. p. 74. ISBN 978-0-87451-962-4.
^ David Tal (2004). War in Palestine, 1948: Israeli and Arab Strategy and Diplomacy. Routledge. p. 469. ISBN 978-1-135-77513-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018. some of the Arab armies invaded Palestine in order to prevent the establishment of a Jewish state, Transjordan…
^ Morris 2008, p. 187: “A week before the armies marched, Azzam told Kirkbride: “It does not matter how many [Jews] there are. We will sweep them into the sea.” … Ahmed Shukeiry, one of Haj Amin al-Husseini‘s aides (and, later, the founding chairman of the Palestine Liberation Organization), simply described the aim as “the elimination of the Jewish state.” … al-Quwwatli told his people: “Our army has entered … we shall win and we shall eradicate Zionism””
^ “PDF copy of Cablegram from the Secretary-General of the League of Arab States to the Secretary-General of the United Nations: S/745: 15 May 1948”. un.org. 9 September 2002. Archived from the original on 12 November 2020. Retrieved 15 October 2024.
^ Karsh, Efraim (2002). The Arab–Israeli conflict: The Palestine War 1948. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 978-1-84176-372-9.
^ Morris, Benny (2004). The Birth of the Palestinian Refugee Problem Revisited. Cambridge University Press. p. 602. ISBN 978-0-521-00967-6.
^ “עיצוב יחסי יהודים – ערבים בעשור הראשון”. lib.cet.ac.il. Archived from the original on 8 October 2022. Retrieved 2 September 2021.
^ “Two Hundred and Seventh Plenary Meeting”. The United Nations. 11 May 1949. Archived from the original on 12 September 2007. Retrieved 13 July 2007.
^ Lustick 1988, pp. 37–39.
^ “Israel (Labor Zionism)”. Country Studies. Archived from the original on 10 July 2012. Retrieved 12 February 2010.
^ Anita Shapira (1992). Land and Power. Stanford University Press. pp. 416, 419.
^ Segev, Tom. 1949: The First Israelis. “The First Million”. Trans. Arlen N. Weinstein. New York: The Free Press, 1986. Print. pp. 105–107
^ Shulewitz, Malka Hillel (2001). The Forgotten Millions: The Modern Jewish Exodus from Arab Lands. Continuum. ISBN 978-0-8264-4764-7.
^ Laskier, Michael “Egyptian Jewry under the Nasser Regime, 1956–70” pp. 573–619 from Middle Eastern Studies, Volume 31, Issue #3, July 1995 p. 579.
^ “Population, by Religion”. Israel Central Bureau of Statistics. 2016. Archived from the original on 18 September 2016. Retrieved 4 September 2016.
^ Bard, Mitchell (2003). The Founding of the State of Israel. Greenhaven Press. p. 15.
^ Hakohen, Devorah (2003). Immigrants in Turmoil: Mass Immigration to Israel and Its Repercussions in the 1950s and After. Syracuse University Press. ISBN 978-0-8156-2969-6.; for ma’abarot population, see p. 269.
^ Clive Jones, Emma Murphy, Israel: Challenges to Identity, Democracy, and the State, Routledge 2002 p. 37: “Housing units earmarked for the Oriental Jews were often reallocated to European Jewish immigrants; Consigning Oriental Jews to the privations of ma’aborot (transit camps) for longer periods.”
^ Segev 2007, pp. 155–157.
^ Shindler 2002, pp. 49–50.
^ Kameel B. Nasr (1996). Arab and Israeli Terrorism: The Causes and Effects of Political Violence, 1936–1993. McFarland. pp. 40–. ISBN 978-0-7864-3105-2. Fedayeen to attack…almost always against civilians
^ Gilbert 2005, p. 58.
^ Isaac Alteras (1993). Eisenhower and Israel: U.S.-Israeli Relations, 1953–1960. University Press of Florida. pp. 192–. ISBN 978-0-8130-1205-6. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018. the removal of the Egyptian blockade of the Straits of Tiran at the entrance of the Gulf of Aqaba. The blockade closed Israel’s sea lane to East Africa and the Far East, hindering the development of Israel’s southern port of Eilat and its hinterland, the Nege. Another important objective of the Israeli war plan was the elimination of the terrorist bases in the Gaza Strip, from which daily fedayeen incursions into Israel made life unbearable for its southern population. And last but not least, the concentration of the Egyptian forces in the Sinai Peninsula, armed with the newly acquired weapons from the Soviet bloc, prepared for an attack on Israel. Here, Ben-Gurion believed, was a time bomb that had to be defused before it was too late. Reaching the Suez Canal did not figure at all in Israel’s war objectives.
^ Dominic Joseph Caraccilo (2011). Beyond Guns and Steel: A War Termination Strategy. ABC-CLIO. pp. 113–. ISBN 978-0-313-39149-1. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018. The escalation continued with the Egyptian blockade of the Straits of Tiran, and Nasser’s nationalization of the Suez Canal in July 1956. On October 14, Nasser made clear his intent:”I am not solely fighting against Israel itself. My task is to deliver the Arab world from destruction through Israel’s intrigue, which has its roots abroad. Our hatred is very strong. There is no sense in talking about peace with Israel. There is not even the smallest place for negotiations.” Less than two weeks later, on October 25, Egypt signed a tripartite agreement with Syria and Jordan placing Nasser in command of all three armies. The continued blockade of the Suez Canal and Gulf of Aqaba to Israeli shipping, combined with the increased fedayeen attacks and the bellicosity of recent Arab statements, prompted Israel, with the backing of Britain and France, to attack Egypt on October 29, 1956.
^ Alan Dowty (2005). Israel/Palestine. Polity. pp. 102–. ISBN 978-0-7456-3202-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 1 December 2018. Gamal Abdel Nasser, who declared in one speech that “Egypt has decided to dispatch her heroes, the disciples of Pharaoh and the sons of Islam and they will cleanse the land of Palestine….There will be no peace on Israel’s border because we demand vengeance, and vengeance is Israel’s death.”…The level of violence against Israelis, soldiers and civilians alike, seemed to be rising inexorably.
^ “Suez Crisis: Key players”. 21 July 2006. Archived from the original on 26 October 2021. Retrieved 19 July 2018.
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^ Gorst, Anthony; Johnman, Lewis (1997). The Suez Crisis. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-11449-3.
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^ John Quigley, The Six-Day War and Israeli Self-Defense: Questioning the Legal Basis for Preventive War, Cambridge University Press, 2013, p. 32.
^ Samir A. Mutawi (2002). Jordan in the 1967 War. Cambridge University Press. p. 93. ISBN 978-0-521-52858-0. Archived from the original on 31 October 2023. Retrieved 17 September 2021. Although Eshkol denounced the Egyptians, his response to this development was a model of moderation. His speech on 21 May demanded that Nasser withdraw his forces from Sinai but made no mention of the removal of UNEF from the Straits nor of what Israel would do if they were closed to Israeli shipping. The next day Nasser announced to an astonished world that henceforth the Straits were, indeed, closed to all Israeli ships
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^ Hanne Eggen Røislien, “Living with Contradiction: Examining the Worldview of the Jewish Settlers in Hebron”, 2 October 2015 International Journal of Conflict and Violence, Vol.1 (2) 2007, pp.169–184
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* King, Laura (28 September 2004). “Losing Faith in the Intifada”. Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on 21 September 2012. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
* Diehl, Jackson (27 September 2004). “From Jenin To Fallujah?”. The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 3 February 2014. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
* Amidror, Yaakov. “Winning Counterinsurgency War: The Israeli Experience” (PDF). Strategic Perspectives. Jerusalem Center for Public Affairs. Archived (PDF) from the original on 11 August 2012. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
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* Buchris, Ofek (9 March 2006). “The “Defensive Shield” Operation as a Turning Point in Israel’s National Security Strategy”. Strategy Research Project. United States Army War College. Archived from the original on 7 October 2012. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
* Krauthammer, Charles (18 June 2004). “Israel’s Intifada Victory”. The Washington Post. Archived from the original on 19 September 2017. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
* Plocker, Sever (22 June 2008). “2nd Intifada forgotten”. Ynetnews. Archived from the original on 19 August 2014. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
* Ya’alon, Moshe (January 2007). “Lessons from the Palestinian ‘War’ against Israel” (PDF). Policy Focus. Washington Institute for Near East Policy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 11 August 2012. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
* Hendel, Yoaz (20 September 2010). “Letting the IDF win”. Ynetnews. Archived from the original on 24 September 2012. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
* Zvi Shtauber; Yiftah Shapir (2006). The Middle East strategic balance, 2004–2005. Sussex Academic Press. p. 7. ISBN 978-1-84519-108-5. Archived from the original on 19 December 2023. Retrieved 12 February 2012.
^ “Fatalities before Operation “Cast Lead””. B’Tselem. Archived from the original on 20 January 2018. Retrieved 14 January 2017.
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Escalation of hostilities in Lebanon and in Israel since Hizbollah’s attack on Israel on 12 July 2006
^ Harel, Amos (13 July 2006). “Hezbollah kills 8 soldiers, kidnaps two in offensive on northern border”. Haaretz. Archived from the original on 13 May 2011. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
^ Koutsoukis, Jason (5 January 2009). “Battleground Gaza: Israeli ground forces invade the strip”. Sydney Morning Herald. Archived from the original on 8 January 2009. Retrieved 5 January 2009.
^ Ravid, Barak (18 January 2009). “IDF begins Gaza troop withdrawal, hours after ending 3-week offensive”. Haaretz. Archived from the original on 17 August 2014. Retrieved 20 March 2012.
^ Lappin, Yaakov; Lazaroff, Tovah (12 November 2012). “Gaza groups pound Israel with over 100 rockets”. The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 14 April 2019. Retrieved 27 March 2013.
^ Stephanie Nebehay (20 November 2012). “UN rights boss, Red Cross urge Israel, Hamas to spare civilians”. Reuters. Archived from the original on 5 March 2016. Retrieved 20 November 2012.
* al-Mughrabi, Nidal (24 November 2012). “Hamas leader defiant as Israel eases Gaza curbs”. Reuters. Archived from the original on 14 January 2016. Retrieved 8 February 2013.
* “Israeli air strike kills top Hamas commander Jabari”. The Jerusalem Post. Archived from the original on 14 November 2012. Retrieved 14 November 2012.
^ “Israel and Hamas Trade Attacks as Tension Rises”. The New York Times. 8 July 2014. Archived from the original on 22 February 2015. Retrieved 16 February 2017.
^ “Israel and Hamas agree Gaza truce, Biden pledges assistance”. Reuters. 21 May 2021. Archived from the original on 31 May 2021. Retrieved 26 May 2021.
^ Martínez, Andrés R.; Bubola, Emma (10 October 2023). “What We Know About the Hamas Attack and Israel’s Response”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 8 October 2023. Retrieved 10 October 2023.
^ Gillett, Francesca (8 October 2023). “How an Israel music festival turned into a nightmare after Hamas attack”. BBC News. Archived from the original on 8 October 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2023.
^ Tabachnick, Cara (8 October 2023). “Israelis search for loved ones with posts and pleas on social media”. CBS News. Archived from the original on 8 October 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2023.
^ Amanda Borschel-Dan (7 October 2023). “Thousands flee rocket and gunfire at all-night desert ‘Nature Party’; dozens missing”. The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 7 October 2023. Retrieved 8 October 2023.
^ Frankel, Julia (21 December 2023). “Israel’s military campaign in Gaza is among the most destructive in history, experts say”. PBS NewsHour. Associated Press. Archived from the original on 22 April 2024. Retrieved 22 April 2024.
^ “Israeli bombardment destroyed over 70% of Gaza homes: Report”. Al Jazeera. 31 December 2023. Archived from the original on 23 April 2024. Retrieved 22 April 2024.
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^ “Netanyahu says IDF will control Gaza after war, rejects notion of international force”. The Times of Israel. Archived from the original on 12 November 2023. Retrieved 13 November 2023.
^ Krauss, Joseph (14 May 2024). “Palestinians mark 76 years of dispossession as a potentially even larger catastrophe unfolds in Gaza”. AP News. Archived from the original on 13 June 2024. Retrieved 14 June 2024. The war in Gaza, which was triggered by Hamas’ Oct. 7 attack into Israel, has killed over 35,000 Palestinians, according to local health officials, making it by far the deadliest round of fighting in the history of the conflict.
^ El Deeb, Sarah (9 October 2023). “What is Hamas? The group that rules the Gaza Strip has fought several rounds of war with Israel”. AP News. Archived from the original on 23 October 2023. Retrieved 5 December 2023.
^ “Gaza: UN experts call on international community to prevent genocide against the Palestinian people”. OHCHR. 16 November 2023. Archived from the original on 24 December 2023. Retrieved 22 December 2023. Grave violations committed by Israel against Palestinians in the aftermath of 7 October, particularly in Gaza, point to a genocide in the making, UN experts said today. They illustrated evidence of increasing genocidal incitement, overt intent to “destroy the Palestinian people under occupation”, loud calls for a ‘second Nakba’ in Gaza and the rest of the occupied Palestinian territory, and the use of powerful weaponry with inherently indiscriminate impacts, resulting in a colossal death toll and destruction of life-sustaining infrastructure.
^ Burga, Solcyré (13 November 2023). “Is What’s Happening in Gaza a Genocide? Experts Weigh In”. Time. Archived from the original on 25 November 2023. Retrieved 24 November 2023.; Corder, Mike (2 January 2024). “South Africa’s genocide case against Israel sets up a high-stakes legal battle at the UN’s top court”. ABC News. Archived from the original on 7 January 2024. Retrieved 3 January 2024.;Quigley, John (3 July 2024). “The Lancet and Genocide By “Slow Death” in Gaza”. Arab Center Washington DC. Archived from the original on 13 July 2024. Retrieved 13 July 2024.
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^ Makhteshim Country. UNESCO. 2001. ISBN 978-954-642-135-7. Archived from the original on 10 May 2020. Retrieved 19 September 2007.
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^ Dinerstein, Eric; Olson, David; Joshi, Anup; Vynne, Carly; Burgess, Neil D.; Wikramanayake, Eric; Hahn, Nathan; Palminteri, Suzanne; Hedao, Prashant; Noss, Reed; Hansen, Matt; Locke, Harvey; Ellis, Erle C; Jones, Benjamin; Barber, Charles Victor; Hayes, Randy; Kormos, Cyril; Martin, Vance; Crist, Eileen; Sechrest, Wes; Price, Lori; Baillie, Jonathan E. M.; Weeden, Don; Suckling, Kierán; Davis, Crystal; Sizer, Nigel; Moore, Rebecca; Thau, David; Birch, Tanya; Potapov, Peter; Turubanova, Svetlana; Tyukavina, Alexandra; de Souza, Nadia; Pintea, Lilian; Brito, José C.; Llewellyn, Othman A.; Miller, Anthony G.; Patzelt, Annette; Ghazanfar, Shahina A.; Timberlake, Jonathan; Klöser, Heinz; Shennan-Farpón, Yara; Kindt, Roeland; Lillesø, Jens-Peter Barnekow; van Breugel, Paulo; Graudal, Lars; Voge, Maianna; Al-Shammari, Khalaf F.; Saleem, Muhammad (2017). “An Ecoregion-Based Approach to Protecting Half the Terrestrial Realm”. BioScience. 67 (6): 534–545. doi:10.1093/biosci/bix014. ISSN 0006-3568. PMC 5451287. PMID 28608869.
^ Tal, Alon (2013). All the Trees of the Forest. Yale University Press. pp. 5, 66. ISBN 9780300189506.
^ “Forestry and Green Innovations”. Jewish National Fund. Archived from the original on 16 October 2023. Retrieved 13 November 2023.
^ Ferry M.; Meghraoui M.; Karaki A.A.; Al-Taj M.; Amoush H.; Al-Dhaisat S.; Barjous M. (2008). “A 48-kyr-long slip rate history for the Jordan Valley segment of the Dead Sea Fault”. Earth and Planetary Science Letters. 260 (3–4): 394–406. Bibcode:2007E&PSL.260..394F. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2007.05.049.
^ American Friends of the Tel Aviv University, Earthquake Experts at Tel Aviv University Turn to History for Guidance (4 October 2007). Quote: The major ones were recorded along the Jordan Valley in the years 31 B.C.E., 363 C.E., 749 C.E., and 1033 C.E. “So roughly, we are talking about an interval of every 400 years. If we follow the patterns of nature, a major quake should be expected any time because almost a whole millennium has passed since the last strong earthquake of 1033.” (Tel Aviv University Associate Professor Dr. Shmuel (Shmulik) Marco). [1] Archived 11 August 2020 at the Wayback Machine
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Zafrir Renat, Israel Is Due, and Ill Prepared, for Major Earthquake, Haaretz, 15 January 2010. “On average, a destructive earthquake takes place in Israel once every 80 years, causing serious casualties and damage.” [2] Archived 15 March 2016 at the Wayback Machine
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^ Goldreich 2003, p. 85.
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^ “National Parks and Nature Reserves, Israel”. Israel Ministry of Tourism. Archived from the original on 19 October 2012. Retrieved 18 September 2012.
^ Degani, Corin (14 August 2023). “How Israel achieved one of the most secure water economies, drip by drip”. Haaretz. Retrieved 17 June 2024.
^ “The History of Drip Irrigation”.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Grossman, Gershon; Ayalon, Ofira; Baron, Yifaat; Kauffman, Debby. “Solar energy for the production of heat Summary and recommendations of the 4th assembly of the energy forum at SNI”. Samuel Neaman Institute for Advanced Studies in Science and Technology. Archived from the original on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 12 August 2012.
^ “Climate Change Trends and Impact in Israel”. Gov.il. Ministry of Environmental Protection. 2 November 2020. Archived from the original on 6 August 2021. Retrieved 29 June 2021.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b “Field Listing — Executive Branch”. The World Factbook. 19 June 2007. Archived from the original on 13 June 2007. Retrieved 20 July 2007.
^ In 1996, direct elections for the prime minister were inaugurated, but the system was declared unsatisfactory and the old one reinstated. See “Israel’s election process explained”. BBC News. 23 January 2003. Retrieved 31 March 2010.
^ “The Electoral System in Israel”. The Knesset. Retrieved 8 August 2007.
^ סגל, עמית (2021). סיפורה של הפוליטיקה הישראלית: מבן גוריון ועד בנט (in Hebrew). Hotsaʼat ʻAmit Segal. ISBN 978-965-599-597-8.
^ Jewish settlers can vote in Israeli elections, though West Bank is officially not Israel, Fox News, February 2015: “When Israelis go to the polls next month, tens of thousands of Jewish settlers in the West Bank will also be casting votes, even though they do not live on what is sovereign Israeli territory. This exception in a country that doesn’t allow absentee voting for citizens living abroad is a telling reflection of Israel’s somewhat ambiguous and highly contentious claim to the territory, which has been under military occupation for almost a half century.”
^ The Social Composition of the 20th Knesset, Israeli Democracy Institute, 30 March 2015
^ Halbfinger, David M.; McCann, Allison (28 February 2020). “As Israel Votes Again (and Again), Arabs See an Opportunity”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on 6 January 2022.
^ Abu Much, Afif (7 November 2022). “Arab Israeli parties trade blame for election fiasco”. Al-Monitor. Retrieved 12 May 2023.
^ “Israel”. Freedom in the World. Freedom House. 2020. Retrieved 13 October 2020.
^ Mazie 2006, p. 34.
^ Charbit, Denis (2014). “Israel’s Self-Restrained Secularism from the 1947 Status Quo Letter to the Present”. In Berlinerblau, Jacques; Fainberg, Sarah; Nou, Aurora (eds.). Secularism on the Edge: Rethinking Church-State Relations in the United States, France, and Israel. Palgrave Macmillan. pp. 167–169. ISBN 978-1-137-38115-6. The compromise, therefore, was to choose constructive ambiguity: as surprising as it may seem, there is no law that declares Judaism the official religion of Israel. However, there is no other law that declares Israel’s neutrality toward all confessions. Judaism is not recognized as the official religion of the state, and even though the Jewish, Muslim and Christian clergy receive their salaries from the state, this fact does not make Israel a neutral state. This apparent pluralism cannot dissimulate the fact that Israel displays a clear and undoubtedly hierarchical pluralism in religious matters. … It is important to note that from a multicultural point of view, this self-restrained secularism allows Muslim law to be practiced in Israel for personal matters of the Muslim community. As surprising as it seems, if not paradoxical for a state in war, Israel is the only Western democratic country in which Sharia enjoys such an official status.
^ Sharot, Stephen (2007). “Judaism in Israel: Public Religion, Neo-Traditionalism, Messianism, and Ethno-Religious Conflict”. In Beckford, James A.; Demerath, Jay (eds.). The Sage Handbook of the Sociology of Religion. Sage Publications. pp. 671–672. ISBN 978-1-4129-1195-5. It is true that Jewish Israelis, and secular Israelis in particular, conceive of religion as shaped by a state-sponsored religious establishment. There is no formal state religion in Israel, but the state gives its official recognition and financial support to particular religious communities, Jewish, Islamic and Christian, whose religious authorities and courts are empowered to deal with matters of personal status and family law, such as marriage, divorce, and alimony, that are binding on all members of the communities.
^ Jacoby, Tami Amanda (2005). Women in Zones of Conflict: Power and Resistance in Israel. McGill-Queen’s University Press. pp. 53–54. ISBN 978-0-7735-2993-9. Although there is no official religion in Israel, there is also no clear separation between religion and state. In Israeli public life, tensions frequently arise among different streams of Judaism: Ultra-Orthodox, National-Religious, Mesorati (Conservative), Reconstructionist Progressive (Reform), and varying combinations of traditionalism and non-observance. Despite this variety in religious observances in society, Orthodox Judaism prevails institutionally over the other streams. This boundary is an historical consequence of the unique evolution of the relationship between Israel nationalism and state building. … Since the founding period, in order to defuse religious tensions, the State of Israel has adopted what is known as the ‘status quo,’ an unwritten agreement stipulating that no further changes would be made in the status of religion, and that conflict between the observant and non-observant sectors would be handled circumstantially. The ‘status quo’ has since pertained to the legal status of both religious and secular Jews in Israel. This situation was designed to appease the religious sector, and has been upheld indefinitely through the disproportionate power of religious political parties in all subsequent coalition governments. … On one hand, the Declaration of Independence adopted in 1948 explicitly guarantees freedom of religion. On the other, it simultaneously prevents the separation of religion and state in Israel.
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^ Harpaz, Yossi; Herzog, Ben (June 2018). Report on Citizenship Law: Israel (Report). European University Institute. hdl:1814/56024.
^ Jump up to:^a ^b Tekiner, Roselle (1991). “Race and the Issue of National Identity in Israel”. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 23 (1). Cambridge University Press: 39–55. doi:10.1017/S0020743800034541. JSTOR 163931. S2CID 163043582.
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^ Jump up to:^a ^b ^c Gilead Sher, The Application of Israeli Law to the West Bank: De Facto Annexation?, INSS Insight No. 638, 4 December 2014
^ Jump up to:^a ^b OECD 2011.
^ Quarterly Economic and Social Monitor Archived 9 October 2021 at the Wayback Machine, Volume 26, October 2011, p. 57: “When Israel bid in March 2010 for membership in the ‘Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development’… some members questioned the accuracy of Israeli statistics, as the Israeli figures (relating to gross domestic product, spending and number of the population) cover geographical areas that the Organization does not recognize as part of the Israeli territory. These areas include East Jerusalem, Israeli settlements in the West Bank and the Golan Heights.”
^ See for example:
* Hajjar, Lisa (2005). Courting Conflict: The Israeli Military Court System in the West Bank and Gaza. University of California Press. p. 96. ISBN 978-0-520-24194-7. The Israeli occupation of the West Bank and Gaza is the longest military occupation in modern times.
* Anderson, Perry (July–August 2001). “Editorial: Scurrying Towards Bethlehem”. New Left Review. 10. Archived from the original on 1 October 2018. Retrieved 9 January 2015. longest official military occupation of modern history—currently entering its thirty-fifth year
* Makdisi, Saree (2010). Palestine Inside Out: An Everyday Occupation. W.W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-33844-7. longest-lasting military occupation of the modern age
* Kretzmer, David (Spring 2012). “The law of belligerent occupation in the Supreme Court of Israel” (PDF). International Review of the Red Cross. 94 (885): 207–236. doi:10.1017/S1816383112000446. S2CID 32105258. This is probably the longest occupation in modern international relations, and it holds a central place in all literature on the law of belligerent occupation since the early 1970s
* Alexandrowicz, Ra’anan (24 January 2012). “The Justice of Occupation”. The New York Times (opinion). Israel is the only modern state that has held territories under military occupation for over four decades
* Weill, Sharon (2014). The Role of National Courts in Applying International Humanitarian Law. Oxford University Press. p. 22. ISBN 978-0-19-968542-4. Although the basic philosophy behind the law of military occupation is that it is a temporary situation modem occupations have well demonstrated that rien ne dure comme le provisoire A significant number of post-1945 occupations have lasted more than two decades such as the occupations of Namibia by South Africa and of East Timor by Indonesia as well as the ongoing occupations of Northern Cyprus by Turkey and of Western Sahara by Morocco. The Israeli occupation of the Palestinian territories, which is the longest in all occupation’s history has already entered its fifth decade.
* Azarova, Valentina. 2017, Israel’s Unlawfully Prolonged Occupation: Consequences under an Integrated Legal Framework, European Council on Foreign Affairs Policy Brief: “June 2017 marks 50 years of Israel’s belligerent occupation of Palestinian territory, making it the longest occupation in modern history.”
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^ Ghanem, A. A.; Rouhana, N.; Yiftachel, O. (1998). “Questioning” ethnic democracy”: A response to Sammy Smooha”. Israel Studies. 3 (2): 253–267. doi:10.2979/ISR.1998.3.2.253. JSTOR 30245721. S2CID 3524173. settlers remain fully enfranchised Israeli citizens while their Palestinian neighbors have no voting rights and no impact on Israeli policies
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^ Jerome Slater (1 October 2020). Mythologies Without End: The US, Israel, and the Arab-Israeli Conflict, 1917–2020. Oxford University Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-19-045909-3. It is now clear that Israel is a true democracy in its broadest sense only for its Jewish citizens. The Arab-Israeli (or, as some prefer, the Palestinian-Israeli) peoples, roughly 20 percent of the total population of Israel its pre-1967 boundaries, are citizens and have voting rights, but they face political, economic, and social discrimination. And, of course, Israeli democracy is inapplicable to the nearly 4 million Palestinian Arabs in the West Bank and Gaza, conquered by Israel in June 1967, who are occupied, repressed, and in many ways, directly and indirectly, effectively ruled by Israel.
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^ ‘With respect to Israeli security forces in the West Bank: credible reports of unlawful or arbitrary killings due to unnecessary or disproportionate use of force by Israeli officials; torture or cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or punishment by Israeli officials; arbitrary arrest or detention; arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy; restrictions on free expression and media, including violence, threats of violence, unjustified arrests and prosecutions against journalists, and censorship; restrictions on internet freedom; restrictions on Palestinians residing in Jerusalem, including arbitrary or unlawful interference with privacy, family, and home; substantial interference with the rights of peaceful assembly and freedom of association, including harassment of nongovernmental organizations; and restrictions on freedom of movement and residence.’ 2021 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices: Israel, West Bank and Gaza, United States Department of State 12 April 2022
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