The founder of the notorious Los Zetas drug cartel, a group responsible for countless acts of violence and drug trafficking across Mexico and beyond, has been deported back to Mexico after serving a lengthy prison sentence in the United States. Heriberto Lazcano, known as one of the most feared figures in Mexico’s drug war, was captured in the U.S. several years ago and had spent significant time in a high-security federal facility.

Lazcano, once a high-ranking officer in Mexico’s military, helped form the Los Zetas cartel in the late 1990s, which quickly became one of the most violent and powerful cartels in the country. Under his leadership, the cartel engaged in a range of criminal activities, including trafficking cocaine, heroin, and marijuana, while also committing brutal acts of violence, including kidnappings, extortions, and assassinations. His leadership contributed significantly to the cartel’s rapid expansion and its violent operations, making Los Zetas one of the most feared organizations in the region.

Following his arrest and conviction, Lazcano was sentenced to several decades in prison, but his transfer to Mexican authorities has now sparked concerns over the potential resurgence of the cartel. His deportation comes at a time when the Mexican government is grappling with the growing power of criminal organizations, despite ongoing efforts to curb drug-related violence.

Mexican officials have confirmed Lazcano’s return, though the details of his future custody remain unclear. Some experts fear that his re-entry into Mexico could reignite the influence of the Los Zetas cartel, which has been weakened in recent years due to arrests and internal conflicts. The Mexican government faces mounting pressure to contain the power of criminal groups like Los Zetas, but many argue that the struggle is far from over, especially with figures like Lazcano now back on home soil.

Osiel Cárdenas Guillén, 57, was once the head of the Los Zetas cartel, a criminal organization that wreaked havoc across Mexico and became infamous for its brutal tactics. Cárdenas took control of Los Zetas in the late 1990s, shaping the group into one of the most powerful and violent cartels in the region. Under his leadership, the cartel expanded its reach, trafficking vast quantities of drugs, particularly cocaine and marijuana, and engaging in a range of violent activities, including kidnappings, executions, and extortion.

COURTESY: WCNC

However, Cárdenas’s reign came to an abrupt end in 2003 when he was captured by Mexican soldiers near his hometown of Matamoros, in northeastern Mexico. His capture marked a significant blow to the cartel, which had been a dominant force in Mexico’s drug trade and was responsible for numerous high-profile criminal activities. Cárdenas was extradited to the United States in 2007, where he faced charges for drug trafficking, money laundering, and organized crime.

In the U.S., Cárdenas was sentenced to 25 years in prison for his role in the cartel’s operations. Despite his imprisonment, the Los Zetas cartel continued to operate, although its power has since diminished due to internal conflicts and the capture of key leaders. Cárdenas’s capture, however, was considered a major success in Mexico’s ongoing fight against drug cartels.

With his leadership dismantled, the Los Zetas cartel saw several power struggles and fractures, but the group’s violent legacy still looms large. Cárdenas’s life and role as a leader in one of the world’s most dangerous criminal organizations continue to be a point of interest for both Mexican authorities and those following the global drug trade.

Under Osiel Cárdenas Guillén’s leadership, Los Zetas transformed from a group of former military personnel into one of the most powerful and brutal hit squads in the Mexican drug wars. Initially formed as the armed wing of the Gulf Cartel, Los Zetas evolved into an independent and highly feared cartel in its own right. Cárdenas, who was known for his ruthlessness, relied heavily on military strategies and tactics, giving the group an edge over rival cartels and the Mexican authorities.

Los Zetas gained a reputation for their extreme violence, including the use of torture, beheadings, and public massacres to intimidate enemies and maintain control. The cartel was also notorious for its sophisticated operations, which spanned across Mexico and even into the United States, trafficking drugs like cocaine, methamphetamine, and marijuana. Their criminal activities went beyond drug trafficking, as they also engaged in kidnapping, extortion, human trafficking, and theft.

Cárdenas’s leadership marked a turning point in the Mexican drug trade, as Los Zetas introduced a new level of brutality that was previously unseen. They operated with a level of discipline and military precision, which made them particularly dangerous. Under Cárdenas, the cartel was not only a major player in the drug trade but also a key destabilizing force in Mexico’s security landscape, contributing to the ongoing violence that has plagued the country for years. His influence helped shape Los Zetas into one of the most notorious criminal organizations in the world.

US immigration officials handed over Osiel Cárdenas Guillén to Mexican authorities at the Otay border crossing, located between the United States and Mexico. Upon his arrival in Mexico, he was swiftly re-arrested by Mexican police and transferred to the El Altiplano maximum-security prison in Mexico State.

El Altiplano is one of Mexico’s most notorious high-security facilities, known for housing dangerous and high-profile criminals, including drug kingpins and cartel leaders. The re-arrest of Cárdenas comes after he completed a lengthy prison sentence in the United States, where he was convicted of drug trafficking, money laundering, and other criminal activities related to his leadership of Los Zetas.

This transfer marks a significant moment in the ongoing battle between Mexico and the powerful drug cartels that have plagued the country for decades. Cárdenas’s return to Mexican custody could further complicate efforts to combat the cartel’s influence, as Los Zetas remains a significant force in the drug trade and organized crime in Mexico. The re-arrest is likely to spark renewed concerns about security and the power of criminal organizations in the region.

COURTESY: Took2Much

Mexican prosecutors confirmed that Osiel Cárdenas Guillén had been re-arrested on charges of murder and organized crime, relating to his activities during his time as one of Mexico’s most notorious drug lords. As the leader of the Los Zetas cartel, Cárdenas was implicated in numerous violent acts, including killings, extortions, and other crimes committed while running the organization.

Los Zetas, under his command, became infamous for their brutal tactics and their role in fueling the Mexican drug wars. The cartel was known for using extreme violence, including beheadings and mass killings, to maintain control over drug trafficking routes and territories. These violent practices earned Los Zetas a reputation as one of the most feared criminal groups in Mexico.

With his return to Mexican custody, authorities are focusing on prosecuting Cárdenas for his role in these heinous acts, and the re-arrest could signal a renewed effort to dismantle the cartel’s remaining power in Mexico. It is also likely to bring further attention to the long-standing issue of organized crime and the ongoing struggles of Mexican authorities to bring justice to victims of cartel violence.

Osiel Cárdenas Guillén’s rise to power in the criminal underworld began in the 1990s with the Gulf Cartel, one of Mexico’s most powerful drug trafficking organizations at the time. Known for his ruthlessness, Cárdenas reportedly did not hesitate to eliminate his allies to climb the ranks, a brutal strategy that earned him the chilling nickname “Mata Amigos” (Spanish for “killer of friends”).

His cold and calculated approach to consolidating power within the Gulf Cartel involved betraying and murdering those who were once close to him, a tactic that both instilled fear and secured his position as a key player in Mexico’s drug wars. His leadership in the cartel marked the beginning of a violent chapter in Mexican criminal history, with Cárdenas at the forefront of the Gulf Cartel’s operations in trafficking drugs, primarily cocaine, across the U.S.-Mexico border.

This willingness to betray even those closest to him reflected the extreme nature of Cárdenas’ leadership style, ultimately shaping the brutal and violent legacy of the Los Zetas cartel, which he co-founded after splitting from the Gulf Cartel in the early 2000s.

What truly set Osiel Cárdenas Guillén apart and cemented his infamy in the history of Mexico’s drug cartels was his recruitment of former members of Mexico’s elite special forces, the Grupo Aeromóvil de Fuerzas Especiales (GAFE). These highly trained soldiers, who were once tasked with protecting the country from its most dangerous criminals, were turned into some of the most feared hitmen and enforcers in the drug trade.

Cárdenas transformed these skilled operatives into a paramilitary force for the Gulf Cartel, known as “Los Zetas.” The Zetas were notorious for their ruthlessness and extreme violence, using military-grade tactics and weaponry in their operations. They became infamous for their ability to execute brutal assassinations, enforce cartel rule, and wage war against rival drug organizations and Mexican authorities alike.

By utilizing the expertise of these former soldiers, Cárdenas revolutionized the cartel’s approach to violence and intimidation, turning Los Zetas into one of the most powerful and brutal criminal organizations in the world. Their operations not only expanded the Gulf Cartel’s reach but also set a dangerous precedent for the level of violence that would come to define many drug cartels in Mexico, a legacy that still echoes through the country’s ongoing drug war.

The law enforcers-turned-contract killers, recruited by Osiel Cárdenas Guillén from Mexico’s elite special forces, became known as Los Zetas. This name, initially referring to the letter “Z” in the Mexican military’s radio communication code, symbolized the group’s military roots and discipline. As the Gulf Cartel’s private army, Los Zetas quickly gained a reputation for their terrifying effectiveness and brutal tactics.

Los Zetas were instrumental in carrying out many of the cartel’s most violent operations, using sophisticated strategies and advanced military equipment. They engaged in assassination, kidnapping, torture, and extortion, and played a major role in expanding the cartel’s influence across Mexico and beyond. Their extreme violence set them apart from other cartels and earned them the fear and respect of both rivals and law enforcement agencies.

Over time, Los Zetas became an independent entity after a split with the Gulf Cartel, forming their own powerful and violent cartel, which continued to fuel the escalating drug war in Mexico. Their legacy of brutality and military precision has made them one of the most infamous criminal groups in modern history.

The brutal methods employed by Los Zetas, including decapitations and dismemberment of their victims, quickly instilled widespread terror across northeastern Mexico, their stronghold. These gruesome acts were intended not only to eliminate rivals but also to send a chilling message of power and control. Their use of extreme violence became a signature tactic, designed to intimidate both their enemies and the local population.

COURTESY: KXAN

Los Zetas often left mutilated bodies in public places, making their executions highly visible and furthering the climate of fear in cities like Monterrey, Reynosa, and Matamoros. These acts of terror were part of their broader strategy to maintain dominance in the drug trade and assert their authority over territories contested by rival cartels. As a result, the region became one of the most dangerous and unstable in Mexico, contributing to the ever-escalating drug violence and deepening the sense of insecurity felt by civilians.

Their shocking and indiscriminate violence also led to a breakdown in law and order, with police, soldiers, and even government officials often targeted or corrupted by the cartel. The group’s fearsome reputation as ruthless killers, along with their military precision, made Los Zetas a powerful and terrifying force in Mexico’s ongoing cartel wars.

By the early 2000s, Osiel Cárdenas Guillén had become one of the most wanted men in Mexico. As the leader of Los Zetas and the Gulf Cartel, he orchestrated some of the most violent and lucrative drug trafficking operations in the country. His cartel controlled key drug routes into the United States, smuggling massive quantities of cocaine, marijuana, and other illicit substances. Cárdenas’s ability to dominate the drug trade, combined with his brutal enforcement tactics, made him a target for Mexican authorities.

His rise to power was marked by increasing violence and corruption. Cárdenas was notorious for using extreme methods to eliminate rivals and maintain control over his cartel’s territories. His influence extended into various sectors of Mexican society, from law enforcement to political figures, many of whom were either bribed or intimidated into submission.

The Mexican government’s efforts to capture him intensified, and by 2003, Cárdenas had become a symbol of the larger war on drug cartels in Mexico. After months of efforts by the Mexican military and federal forces, he was finally captured near his hometown of Matamoros, Tamaulipas, in a violent raid that marked a major victory for the Mexican government in its battle against organized crime. His capture was seen as a significant blow to Los Zetas and the Gulf Cartel, but the cartel’s violent legacy would continue, even after Cárdenas’s imprisonment.

Mexican security forces successfully apprehended Osiel Cárdenas Guillén in his home state of Tamaulipas in 2003, following a bloody gun battle. The confrontation, which took place near his hometown of Matamoros, was a high-stakes operation involving Mexican military and federal police forces. Cárdenas, who had become one of Mexico’s most wanted criminals, fought back fiercely with his heavily armed associates, but after hours of intense clashes, he was captured.

The bloody battle underscored the violent nature of Cárdenas’s reign as the leader of the Gulf Cartel and Los Zetas. At the time of his capture, Cárdenas had amassed significant power, controlling key drug trafficking routes and maintaining a vast network of corrupt officials and enforcers. His arrest was a critical moment in Mexico’s war on drugs, and it marked the beginning of the cartel’s eventual fragmentation. However, despite his capture, the influence of Los Zetas and the Gulf Cartel continued to spread fear and violence throughout the region for many years.

Aware of the immense power Osiel Cárdenas Guillén wielded in the region, Mexican security forces took swift action to transport him away from his stronghold. After his capture in Tamaulipas, he was immediately flown to the capital, Mexico City, to ensure his safety and prevent any possibility of a rescue by cartel allies. Upon arrival, Cárdenas was placed in pre-trial detention at a high-security facility, as authorities recognized the significant threat he posed not only due to his cartel leadership but also because of his ability to exert influence over various corrupt factions. His transfer to Mexico City was a strategic move aimed at minimizing the risk of his escape or any external interference, while also securing his position in the Mexican justice system.

In 2007, after years of being held in Mexican custody, Osiel Cárdenas Guillén was extradited to the United States to face a range of charges, including drug trafficking, organized crime, and money laundering. The decision to extradite him came after intense pressure from US authorities, who had long considered Cárdenas one of the most dangerous and influential figures in the drug trade. In the US, he was tried and convicted for his role in orchestrating the illegal trafficking of vast amounts of cocaine and other drugs, as well as his involvement in orchestrating violent acts that contributed to the deadly wave of drug-related violence. His extradition marked a significant blow to the Gulf Cartel, but also underscored the ongoing battle between Mexico and the powerful drug cartels.

In the United States, Osiel Cárdenas Guillén faced additional charges beyond drug trafficking. He was accused of orchestrating the smuggling of vast quantities of cocaine into the US, contributing to the devastating effects of the drug trade. In addition to the drug trafficking charges, Cárdenas was also charged with threatening to assault and murder federal agents. These charges were particularly significant because they highlighted his ruthless efforts to maintain control and intimidate law enforcement officials. His threats against federal agents underscored the cartel leader’s willingness to go to extreme lengths to protect his criminal empire and avoid capture.

In 2010, Osiel Cárdenas Guillén pleaded guilty to charges of drug trafficking, money laundering, and threats against federal agents. As a result, he was sentenced to 25 years in a U.S. federal prison. This conviction was seen as a significant blow to the Gulf Cartel, as Cárdenas had been one of its most powerful and influential leaders. His imprisonment further weakened the cartel, although it continued to operate under new leadership. The sentence marked a pivotal moment in the ongoing U.S.-Mexico drug war, sending a message to other cartel leaders that the U.S. would continue to pursue justice against those involved in organized crime.

In August 2024, after serving a substantial portion of his 25-year sentence, Osiel Cárdenas Guillén was released from the federal prison in Terre Haute, Idaho. Following his release, he was handed over to U.S. Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE) for deportation proceedings. This move marked a significant turning point for the notorious drug lord, as his return to Mexico loomed. The transfer to ICE signaled the end of his sentence in the U.S., but also raised concerns about his potential influence in Mexico, where he was once a powerful and feared figure in the drug trade.

This paved the way for his deportation to Mexico on Monday, where he was immediately re-arrested by Mexican authorities upon arrival. Cárdenas Guillén was then transferred to the El Altiplano maximum security prison, a facility known for housing some of Mexico’s most dangerous criminals. The move highlighted Mexico’s continued efforts to bring to justice individuals involved in organized crime, particularly those with deep ties to powerful drug cartels like Los Zetas. Cárdenas Guillén now faces a new set of charges in Mexico, including murder and organized crime, linked to his reign of terror during the height of Los Zetas’ operations.

References

1. ^ “World Development Indicators: Rural environment and land use”. World Development Indicators, The World Bank. World Bank. Archived from the original on June 17, 2016. Retrieved September 12, 2013.
2. ^ Jump up to:^a b “World Population Prospects 2022”. United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
3. ^ Jump up to:^a b “World Population Prospects 2022: Demographic indicators by region, subregion and country, annually for 1950-2100” (XSLX) (“Total Population, as of 1 July (thousands)”). United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, Population Division. Retrieved July 17, 2022.
4. ^ Dressing, David. “Latin America”. Encyclopedia of Latin American History and Culture. v. 5, 390
5. ^ Bethell, Leslie (August 1, 2010). “Brazil and ‘Latin America'”. Journal of Latin American Studies. 42 (3): 457–485. doi:10.1017/S0022216X1000088X. ISSN 1469-767X.
6. ^ Gistory (September 17, 2015). “Is Brazil Part of Latin America? It’s Not an Easy Question”. Medium. Retrieved July 17, 2024.
7. ^ “Latin America” definition Archived September 22, 2022, at the Wayback Machine. Encyclopedia Britannica, accessed May 20, 2022.
8. ^ Jump up to:^a b Bilbao, Francisco (June 22, 1856). “Iniciativa de la América. Idea de un Congreso Federal de las Repúblicas” (in Spanish). París. Archived from the original on September 17, 2017. Retrieved July 16, 2017 – via Proyecto Filosofía en español.
9. ^ Britton, John A. (2013). Cables, Crises, and the Press: The Geopolitics of the New Information System in the Americas, 1866–1903. UNM Press. pp. 16–18. ISBN 9780826353986.
10. ^ Mignolo, Walter (2005). The Idea of Latin America. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. pp. 77–80. ISBN 978-1-4051-0086-1.
11. ^ Ardao, Arturo (1980). Genesis de la idea y el nombre de América Latina (PDF). Caracas, Venezuela: Centro de Estudios Latinoamericanos Rómulo Gallegos. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 27, 2019. Retrieved March 8, 2019.
12. ^ Rojas Mix, Miguel (1986). “Bilbao y el hallazgo de América latina: Unión continental, socialista y libertaria…”. Caravelle. Cahiers du monde hispanique et luso-brésilien. 46 (1): 35–47. doi:10.3406/carav.1986.2261. ISSN 0008-0152.
13. ^ Gobat, Michel (December 1, 2013). “The Invention of Latin America: A Transnational History of Anti-Imperialism, Democracy, and Race”. The American Historical Review. 118 (5): 1345–1375. doi:10.1093/ahr/118.5.1345. ISSN 0002-8762. S2CID 163918139.
14. ^ Edward, Shawcross (February 6, 2018). France, Mexico and informal empire in Latin America, 1820–1867 : equilibrium in the New World. Cham, Switzerland. p. 120. ISBN 9783319704647. OCLC 1022266228.
15. ^ Gutierrez, Ramon A. (2016). “What’s in a Name?”. In Gutierrez, Ramon A.; Almaguer, Tomas (eds.). The New Latino Studies Reader: A Twenty-First-Century Perspective. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 34. ISBN 978-0-520-28484-5. OCLC 1043876740. The word latinoamericano emerged in the years following the wars of independence in Spain’s former colonies […] By the late 1850s, californios were writing in newspapers about their membership in América latina (Latin America) and latinoamerica, calling themselves Latinos as the shortened name for their hemispheric membership in la raza latina (the Latin race). Reprinting an 1858 opinion piece by a correspondent in Havana on race relations in the Americas, El Clamor Publico of Los Angeles surmised that ‘two rival races are competing with each other … the Anglo Saxon and the Latin one [la raza latina].’ 
16. ^ “América latina o Sudamérica?, por Luiz Alberto Moniz Bandeira, Clarín, 16 de mayo de 2005″. Clarin.com. May 16, 2005. Archived from the original on March 27, 2010. Retrieved April 23, 2013.
17. ^ José María Torres Caicedo (September 26, 1856). “Las dos Américas” (in Spanish). Venice. Archived from the original on July 22, 2017. Retrieved April 23, 2013 – via Proyecto Filosofía en español.
18. ^ Bilbao, Francisco. “Emancipación del espíritu de América”. Francisco Bilbao Barquín, 1823–1865, Chile. Archived from the original on September 16, 2017. Retrieved July 16, 2017.
19. ^ RAE (2005). Diccionario Panhispánico de Dudas. Madrid: Santillana Educación. ISBN 8429406239. Archived from the original on April 4, 2010. Retrieved October 15, 2010.
20. ^ Rangel, Carlos (1977). The Latin Americans: Their Love-Hate Relationship with the United States. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich. pp. 3–5. ISBN 978-0-15-148795-0. Skidmore, Thomas E.; Peter H. Smith (2005). Modern Latin America (6th ed.). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 1–10. ISBN 978-0-19-517013-9.
21. ^ Jump up to:^a b Torres, George (2013). Encyclopedia of Latin American Popular Music. ABC-CLIO. p. xvii. ISBN 9780313087943.
22. ^ Butland, Gilbert J. (1960). Latin America: A Regional Geography. New York: John Wiley and Sons. pp. 115–188. ISBN 978-0-470-12658-5.
    Dozer, Donald Marquand (1962). Latin America: An Interpretive History. New York: McGraw-Hill. pp. 1–15. ISBN 0-87918-049-8.
    Szulc, Tad (1965). Latin America. New York Times Company. pp. 13–17. ISBN 0-689-10266-6.
    Olien, Michael D. (1973). Latin Americans: Contemporary Peoples and Their Cultural Traditions. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston. pp. 1–5. ISBN 978-0-03-086251-9.
    Black, Jan Knippers, ed. (1984). Latin America: Its Problems and Its Promise: A Multidisciplinary Introduction. Boulder: Westview Press. pp. 362–378. ISBN 978-0-86531-213-5.
    Burns, E. Bradford (1986). Latin America: A Concise Interpretive History (4th ed.). New York: Prentice-Hall. pp. 224–227. ISBN 978-0-13-524356-5.
    Skidmore, Thomas E.; Peter H. Smith (2005). Modern Latin America (6th ed.). Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press. pp. 351–355. ISBN 978-0-19-517013-9.
23. ^ Composition of macro geographical (continental) regions, geographical sub-regions, and selected economic and other groupings Archived April 17, 2010, at the Wayback Machine, UN Statistics Division. Accessed on line May 23, 2009. (French Archived December 24, 2010, at the Wayback Machine)
24. ^ Latin America and the Caribbean Archived May 1, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. The World Bank. Retrieved July 17, 2009.
25. ^ “Country Directory. Latin American Network Information Center-University of Texas at Austin”. Lanic.utexas.edu. Archived from the original on March 11, 2014. Retrieved December 9, 2013.
26. ^ Mauricio Tenorio-Trillo, Latin America: The Allure and Power of an Idea. Chicago: University of Chicago Press 2017, 1, 3.
27. ^ Francisco Bilbao, La América en peligro, Buenos Aires: Impr. de Berheim y Boeno 1862, 14, 23, quoted in Tenorio-Trillo, Latin America, p. 5.
28. ^ Gongóra, Alvaro; de la Taille, Alexandrine; Vial, Gonzalo. Jaime Eyzaguirre en su tiempo (in Spanish). Zig-Zag. p. 223.
29. ^ “South America, Latin America”. Reflexions. University of Liège. Archived from the original on November 24, 2022. Retrieved November 24, 2022.
30. ^ “(PDF) Language and education in Aruba, Bonaire and Curaçao”. ResearchGate. Archived from the original on September 25, 2024. Retrieved December 16, 2024.
31. ^ María Alejandra Acosta Garcia; González, Sheridan; Ma. de Lourdes Romero; Reza, Luis; Salinas, Araceli (June 2011). “Three”. Geografía, Quinto Grado [Geography, Fifth Grade] (Second ed.). Mexico City: Secretaría de Educación Pública [Secretariat of Public Education]. pp. 75–83 – via Comisión Nacional de Libros de Texto Gratuitos (CONALITEG).
32. ^ Jump up to:^a b Central Intelligence Agency (2023). “The World Factbook – Country Comparisons: Population”. Archived from the original on January 6, 2021. Retrieved June 28, 2023.
33. ^ Jump up to:^a b “United Nations Statistics Division – Demographic and Social Statistics”. unstats.un.org. Archived from the original on October 15, 2017. Retrieved July 18, 2021.
34. ^ Téléchargement du fichier d’ensemble des populations légales en 2017 Archived October 5, 2020, at the Wayback Machine, INSEE
35. ^ Ospina, Jose (October 28, 2018). “Is there a right-wing surge in South America?”. DW. Archived from the original on December 31, 2022. Retrieved December 10, 2018.
36. ^ “Conservative Lacalle Pou wins Uruguay presidential election, ending 15 years of leftist rule”. France 24. November 29, 2019. Archived from the original on June 13, 2022. Retrieved June 13, 2022.
37. ^ Jordi Zamora. “China’s double-edged trade with Latin America”. September 3, 2011. AFP.
38. ^ Casey, Nicholas; Zarate, Andrea (February 13, 2017). “Corruption Scandals With Brazilian Roots Cascade Across Latin America”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on June 13, 2017. Retrieved June 16, 2017.
39. ^ Andreoni, Manuela; Londoño, Ernesto; Darlington, Shasta (April 7, 2018). “Ex-President ‘Lula’ of Brazil Surrenders to Serve 12-Year Jail Term”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on April 7, 2018. Retrieved April 7, 2018.
40. ^ “Another former Peruvian president is sent to jail, this time as part of growing corruption scandal”. Los Angeles Times. July 14, 2017. Archived from the original on March 24, 2022. Retrieved July 14, 2017.
41. ^ Weiffen, Brigitte (December 1, 2020). “Latin America and COVID-19: Political Rights and Presidential Leadership to the Test”. Democratic Theory. 7 (2): 61–68. doi:10.3167/dt.2020.070208. ISSN 2332-8894. Archived from the original on January 21, 2021. Retrieved January 13, 2021.
42. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Rethinking Education: Towards a global common good? (PDF). UNESCO. 2015. pp. 24, Box 1. ISBN 978-92-3-100088-1. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 13, 2018. Retrieved March 15, 2017.
43. ^ Report on World Social Situation 2013: Inequality Matters. United Nations. 2013. ISBN 978-92-1-130322-3. Archived from the original on May 25, 2017. Retrieved June 28, 2017.
44. ^ Protección social inclusiva en América Latina. Una mirada integral, un enfoque de derechos [Inclusive social protection in Latin America. An integral look, a focus on rights]. United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (UNECLAC). March 2011. ISBN 9789210545556. Archived from the original on February 1, 2014. Retrieved August 9, 2012.
45. ^ Nutini, Hugo; Isaac, Barry (2009). Social Stratification in central Mexico 1500–2000. University of Texas Press. p. 55. There are basically four operational categories that may be termed ethnic or even racial in Mexico today: (1) güero or blanco (white), denoting European and Near East extraction; (2) criollo (creole), meaning light mestizo in this context but actually of varying complexion; (3) mestizo, an imprecise category that includes many phenotypic variations; and (4) indio, also an imprecise category. These are nominal categories, and neither güero/blanco nor criollo is a widely used term (see Nutini 1997: 230). Nevertheless, there is a popular consensus in Mexico today that these four categories represent major sectors of the nation and that they can be arranged into a rough hierarchy: whites and creoles at the top, a vast population of mestizos in the middle, and Indians (perceived as both a racial and an ethnic component) at the bottom.
46. ^ Seed, Patricia (1988). To Love, Honor, and Obey in Colonial Mexico: conflicts over Marriage Choice, 1574–1821. Stanford: Stanford University. pp. 21–23. ISBN 0-8047-2159-9.
47. ^ Francisco H. Ferreira et al. Inequality in Latin America: Breaking with History?, The World Bank, Washington, D.C., 2004
48. ^ Jones, Nicola; Baker, Hayley. “Untangling links between trade, poverty and gender”. ODI Briefing Papers 38, March 2008. Overseas Development Institute (ODI). Archived from the original on July 19, 2009. Retrieved April 15, 2011.
49. ^ Baten, Jörg; Mumme, Christina (2010). “Globalization and educational inequality during the 18th to 20th centuries: Latin America in global comparison”. Journal of Iberian and Latin American Economic History. 28 (2): 279–305. doi:10.1017/S021261091000008X. hdl:10016/21558. S2CID 51961447.
50. ^ Baten, Jörg (2016). A History of the Global Economy. From 1500 to the Present. Cambridge University Press. p. 148f. ISBN 9781107507180.
51. ^ Nations, United. “UNDP HDI 2020”. UNDP. Archived from the original on November 2, 2010. Retrieved December 23, 2020.
52. ^ “GDP per Capita Ranking 2015 – Data and Charts”. Knoema. Archived from the original on May 6, 2016. Retrieved May 13, 2016.
53. ^ “Human Development Report 2011” (PDF). Table 3: Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 15, 2012. Retrieved August 8, 2012.
54. ^ “Human Development Report 2011” (PDF). Table 5: Multidimensional Poverty Index. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 11, 2012. Retrieved August 8, 2012.
55. ^ “ADULT AND YOUTH LITERACY: National, regional and global trends, 1985-2015” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on August 2, 2016. Retrieved January 2, 2016.
56. ^ “Geoba.se: Gazetteer – The World – Life Expectancy – Top 100+ By Country (2016)”. Archived from the original on November 20, 2016. Retrieved May 13, 2016.
57. ^ “Homicide Statistics 2014”. Murder rate per 100,000 inhabitants. United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC). Archived from the original on February 2, 2017. Retrieved February 2, 2017.
58. ^ Jump up to:^a b “Global Rankings”. Vision of Humanity. Institute for Economics and Peace (IEP). July 24, 2020. Archived from the original on June 19, 2019. Retrieved February 26, 2019.
59. ^ “socio-economic policies” (PDF). dane.gov.co. Archived (PDF) from the original on March 6, 2016. Retrieved March 2, 2016.
60. ^ “Statistic yearbook” (PDF). policica.gob.ni. Archived (PDF) from the original on January 28, 2021. Retrieved January 22, 2021.
61. ^ Jump up to:^a b “Life expectancy at birth, total”. The World Bank Group. May 30, 2024. Archived from the original on February 2, 2021. Retrieved June 16, 2024.
62. ^ “Life expectancy at birth, male”. The World Bank Group. May 30, 2024. Archived from the original on March 11, 2021. Retrieved June 16, 2024.
63. ^ “Life expectancy at birth, female”. The World Bank Group. May 30, 2024. Archived from the original on March 12, 2021. Retrieved June 16, 2024.
64. ^ “Global Metro Monitor 2014”. Brookings Institution. January 22, 2015. Archived from the original on January 7, 2019. Retrieved January 22, 2015.
65. ^ Andrews, George Reid. 1980. The Afro-Argentines of Buenos Aires, 1800–1900, Madison: University of Wisconsin Press
66. ^ Gilberto Freyre. The Masters and the Slaves: A Study in the Development of Brazilian Civilization. Samuel Putnam (trans.). Berkeley: University of California Press.
67. ^ Thomas E. Skidmore. Black into White: Race and Nationality in Brazilian Thought. New York: Oxford University Press, 1974.
68. ^ France Winddance Twine Racism in a Racial Democracy: The Maintenance of White Supremacy in Brazil,(1997) Rutgers University Press
69. ^ “Reference for Welsh language in southern Argentina, Welsh immigration to Patagonia”. Bbc.co.uk. July 22, 2008. Archived from the original on March 12, 2011. Retrieved April 23, 2013.
70. ^ “The Welsh Immigration to Argentina”. 1stclassargentina.com. Archived from the original on March 19, 2022. Retrieved October 4, 2009.
71. ^ Howat, Jeremy. “Reference for Welsh language in southern Argentina, Welsh immigration to Patagonia”. Argbrit.org. Archived from the original on December 7, 2021. Retrieved April 23, 2013.
72. ^ “Reference for Welsh language in southern Argentina, Welsh immigration to Patagonia”. Patagonline.com. Archived from the original on September 19, 2015. Retrieved April 23, 2013.
73. ^ “Reference for Welsh language in southern Argentina, Welsh immigration to Patagonia”. Andesceltig.com. September 29, 2009. Archived from the original on September 17, 2017. Retrieved April 23, 2013.
74. ^ “Reference for Welsh language in southern Argentina, Welsh immigration to Patagonia”. Glaniad.com. Archived from the original on August 8, 2016. Retrieved April 23, 2013.
75. ^ Meade, Teresa A. (2016). History of Modern Latin America: 1800 to the Present (2nd ed.). Chichester, UK: John Wiley & Sons. p. 13. ISBN 978-1-118-77248-5.
76. ^ “Christians”. Pew Research Center’s Religion & Public Life Project. December 18, 2012. Archived from the original on December 21, 2012. Retrieved May 13, 2016.
77. ^ “CIA – The World Factbook – Field Listing – Religions”. Archived from the original on December 20, 2018. Retrieved March 17, 2009.
78. ^ Fraser, Barbara J., In Latin America, Catholics down, church’s credibility up, poll says Archived June 28, 2005, at the Library of Congress Web Archives Catholic News Service June 23, 2005
79. ^ “The Global Religious Landscape” (PDF). Pewforum.org. Archived from the original (PDF) on January 25, 2017. Retrieved May 7, 2020.
80. ^ Alec Ryrie, “The World’s Local Religion” History Today (2017) online Archived September 22, 2017, at the Wayback Machine
81. ^ Jump up to:^a b “Religion in Latin America, Widespread Change in a Historically Catholic Region”. Pew Research Center. November 13, 2014. Archived from the original on August 21, 2021. Retrieved March 4, 2015.
82. ^ Burden, David K. La Idea Salvadora: Immigration and Colonization Politics in Mexico, 1821–1857. University of California, Santa Barbara, 2005.
83. ^ Gutmann, Myron P., et al. “The demographic impact of the Mexican Revolution in the United States.” Austin: Population Research Center, University of Texas (2000)
84. ^ Young, Julia G. “Cristero Diaspora: Mexican Immigrants, The US Catholic Church, and Mexico’s Cristero War, 1926–29.” The Catholic Historical Review (2012): 271–300.
85. ^ Durand, Jorge, and Douglas S. Massey. “Mexican migration to the United States: A critical review.” Latin American Research Review 27.2 (1992): 3–42.
86. ^ Sánchez-Albornoz, Nicolás. “The Spanish Exiles in Mexico and Beyond.” Exile and the politics of exclusion in the Americas (2012)
87. ^ Adams, Jacqueline. Introduction: Jewish Refugees’ Lives in Latin America after Persecution and Impoverishment in Europe. Comparative Cultural Studies: European and Latin American Perspectives 11: 5–17, 2021
88. ^ Wright, Thomas C., and Rody Oñate Zúniga. “Chilean political exile.” Latin American Perspectives 34.4 (2007): 31–49.
89. ^ Bermudez, Anastasia. “The “diaspora politics” of Colombian migrants in the UK and Spain.” International Migration 49.3 (2011): 125–143.
90. ^ Bertoli, Simone, Jesús Fernández-Huertas Moraga, and Francesc Ortega. “Immigration policies and the Ecuadorian exodus.” The World Bank Economic Review 25.1 (2011): 57–76.
91. ^ Pedroza, L.; Palop, P.; Hoffmann, B. (2018). “Emigrant Policies in Latin America and the Caribbean: FLASCO-Chile” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on May 9, 2019. Retrieved May 9, 2019.
92. ^ Global Child Nutrition Foundation (GCNF). 2022. School Meal Programs Around the World: Results from the 2021 Global Survey of School Meal Programs Archived January 29, 2023, at the Wayback Machine. GCNF: Seattle.
93. ^ Welti, Carlos (2002). “Adolescents in Latin America: Facing the Future with Skepticism”. In Brown, B. (ed.). The World’s Youth: Adolescence in Eight Regions of the Globe ([Online-Ausg.]. ed.). Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521006058.
94. ^ Jump up to:^a b [BID/EDU Stakeholder Survey 1993/2003, February 8, 2011]
95. ^ Latin America the Most Dangerous Region in terms of Violence, archived from the original on October 24, 2012, retrieved August 28, 2013
96. ^ “Latin America: Crisis behind bars”. BBC News. November 16, 2005. Archived from the original on September 8, 2017. Retrieved May 7, 2010.
97. ^ “Latin America Is the Murder Capital of the World”. The Wall Street Journal. September 20, 2018. Archived from the original on March 23, 2023. Retrieved July 26, 2019.
98. ^ “A Year of Violence Sees Brazil’s Murder Rate Hit Record High”. The New York Times. August 10, 2018. Archived from the original on August 16, 2021. Retrieved July 26, 2019.
99. ^ Jump up to:^a b “Intentional homicides (per 100,000 people)”. UN Office on Drugs and Crime’s International Homicide Statistics database. Archived from the original on September 22, 2017. Retrieved September 21, 2017.
100. ^ “Map: Here are countries with the world’s highest murder rates”. UN Office on Drugs and Crime’s International Homicide Statistics database. Archived from the original on February 1, 2017. Retrieved February 1, 2017.
101. ^ “Crime Hinders Development, Democracy in Latin America, U.S. Says – US Department of State”. Archived from the original on February 13, 2008.
102. ^ “”Understanding the uneven distribution of the incidence of homicide in Latin America””. Archived from the original on June 1, 2010. International Journal of Epidemiology
103. ^ “Life expectancy and Healthy life expectancy, data by country”. World Health Organization. December 4, 2022.
104. ^ Onestini, Maria (February 6, 2011). “Water Quality and Health in Poor Urban Areas of Latin America”. International Journal of Water Resources Development. 27: 219–226. doi:10.1080/07900627.2010.537244. S2CID 154427438 – via Taylor & Francis Online.
105. ^ “Chile abortion: Court approves easing total ban”. BBC News. August 21, 2017.
106. ^ “Latin America and the Caribbean”. Center for Reproductive Rights. November 8, 2023. Retrieved November 10, 2023.
107. ^ “Why we continue to march towards legal abortion in Argentina”. Amnesty International. August 8, 2019. Retrieved October 20, 2023.
108. ^ “GAPD – The Global Abortion Policies Database – The Global Abortion Policies Database is designed to strengthen global efforts to eliminate unsafe abortion”. Retrieved October 19, 2023.
109. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e} “HIV and AIDS in Latin America the Caribbean regional overview”. Avert. July 21, 2015. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
110. ^ Jump up to:^a b García, Patricia J; Bayer, Angela; Cárcamo, César P (June 2014). “The Changing Face of HIV in Latin America and the Caribbean”. Current HIV/AIDS Reports. 11 (2): 146–157. doi:10.1007/s11904-014-0204-1. ISSN 1548-3568. PMC 4136548. PMID 24824881.
111. ^ “Homophobia and HIV”. Avert. July 20, 2015. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
112. ^ Jump up to:^a b “Miles to go—closing gaps, breaking barriers, righting injustices”. www.unaids.org. Retrieved November 17, 2019.
113. ^ Silva-Santisteban, Alfonso; Eng, Shirley; de la Iglesia, Gabriela; Falistocco, Carlos; Mazin, Rafael (July 17, 2016). “HIV prevention among transgender women in Latin America: implementation, gaps and challenges”. Journal of the International AIDS Society. 19 (3Suppl 2): 20799. doi:10.7448/IAS.19.3.20799. ISSN 1758-2652. PMC 4949309. PMID 27431470.
114. ^ “The N-11: More Than an Acronym” (PDF). Appendix II: Projections in Detail. Goldman Sachs Economic Research. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 31, 2010.
115. ^ Jump up to:^a b “GDP 2019, some Latin American countries”. IMF WEO Database. Archived from the original on August 3, 2020. Retrieved February 10, 2020.
116. ^ “Latin America production in 2020, by FAO”. Archived from the original on November 12, 2016. Retrieved June 18, 2022.
117. ^ “South American countries production in 2018, by FAO”. Archived from the original on November 12, 2016. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
118. ^ “Conheça os 3 países que desafiam o Brasil nas exportações de frango”. January 22, 2020. Archived from the original on August 14, 2021. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
119. ^ “maiores exportadores de carne de frango entre os anos de 2015 e 2019”. May 30, 2019. Archived from the original on June 1, 2019. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
120. ^ “IBGE: rebanho de bovinos tinha 218,23 milhões de cabeças em 2016”. September 29, 2017. Archived from the original on May 9, 2021. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
121. ^ “Brasil é o 3º maior produtor de leite do mundo, superando o padrão Europeu em alguns municípios”. Archived from the original on September 17, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
122. ^ “principais países produtores de carne suína entre 2017 e a estimativa para 2019”. July 23, 2019. Archived from the original on August 16, 2021. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
123. ^ “Argentina production in 2018, by FAO”. Archived from the original on November 12, 2016. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
124. ^ “Producción de carne y leche, por FAO”. Archived from the original on October 16, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
125. ^ “mcs2021 /mcs2021-gold.pdf USGS Gold Production Statistics”. Archived from the original on June 15, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
126. ^ “Production statistics of USGS Silver” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on May 15, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
127. ^ “Copper production statistics for the USGS” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
128. ^ “Production statistics of USGS iron ore” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
129. ^ “Zinc production statistics from USGS” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
130. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d “USGS Molybdenum Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
131. ^ “USGS lithium production statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
132. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d “USGS Lead Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on May 15, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
133. ^ “USGS Bauxite Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on December 8, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
134. ^ “USGS tin production statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on August 13, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
135. ^ “Manganese production statistics from the USGS” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on June 25, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
136. ^ “USGS antimony production statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
137. ^ “USGS Nickel Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
138. ^ “USGS Niobium Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
139. ^ “USGS rhenium production statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on June 21, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
140. ^ “USGS iodine production statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on June 25, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
141. ^ “ANM”. gov.br Agência Nacional de Mineração. July 31, 2023. Archived from the original on August 4, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
142. ^ “Brasil extrai cerca de 2 gramas de ouro por habitante em 5 anos”. R7.com. June 29, 2019. Archived from the original on July 12, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
143. ^ “G1 > Economia e Negócios – NOTÍCIAS – Votorantim Metais adquire reservas de zinco da Masa”. g1.globo.com. Archived from the original on January 18, 2021. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
144. ^ “Nióbio: G1 visita em MG complexo industrial do maior produtor do mundo”. G1. December 12, 2019. Archived from the original on December 12, 2019. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
145. ^ “Serviço Geológico do Brasil”. cprm.gov.br. Archived from the original on September 6, 2019. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
146. ^ “Rio Grande do Sul: o maior exportador de pedras preciosas do Brasil”. Band.com.br. Archived from the original on May 2, 2018. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
147. ^ “Copper production in 2019 by USGS” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
148. ^ “USGS Iodine Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on June 25, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
149. ^ “USGS Rhenium Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on June 21, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
150. ^ Jump up to:^a b “USGS Lithium Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
151. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e} “USGS Silver Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on May 15, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
152. ^ Jump up to:^a b “USGS Salt Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
153. ^ “USGS Potash Product ion Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
154. ^ “USGS Sulfur Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
155. ^ “USGS Iron Ore Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
156. ^ Jump up to:^a b “USGS Copper Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
157. ^ Jump up to:^a b c “USGS Gold Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
158. ^ Jump up to:^a b “USGS Zinc Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
159. ^ Jump up to:^a b “USGS Tin Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on August 13, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
160. ^ Jump up to:^a b c “USGS Boron Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 18, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
161. ^ “USGS Antimony Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
162. ^ “USGS Tungsten Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 5, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
163. ^ “USGS ZincProduction Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
164. ^ Campbell, Keith (June 21, 2013). “The state of mining in South America – an overview”. Miningweekly.com. Archived from the original on December 7, 2020. Retrieved March 19, 2022.
165. ^ “Anuário Mineral Brasileiro 2018”. Archived from the original on July 9, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
166. ^ “La minería en México se reiniciará la próxima semana”. May 14, 2020. Archived from the original on November 25, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
167. ^ “USGS Mercury Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on March 7, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
168. ^ “USGS Bismuth Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 22, 2022. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
169. ^ “USGS Manganese Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on June 25, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
170. ^ “USGS Phosphate Production Statistics” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on May 2, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
171. ^ “Colombian emeralds”. Archived from the original on December 21, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
172. ^ “Gold production in Colombia”. Archived from the original on August 16, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
173. ^ “Silver production in Colombia”. Archived from the original on August 16, 2021. Retrieved June 27, 2021.
174. ^ Jump up to:^a b “Production of Crude Oil including Lease Condensate 2019”. Archived from the original on March 4, 2021. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
175. ^ “Natural Gas production”. Archived from the original on October 19, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
176. ^ Jump up to:^a b “Statistical Review of World Energy 2018”. Archived from the original on October 12, 2015. Retrieved June 26, 2021.
177. ^ “Manufacturing, value added (current US$)”. Archived from the original on January 7, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
178. ^ “Alimentos Processados | A indústria de alimentos e bebidas na sociedade brasileira atual”. alimentosprocessados.com.br. Archived from the original on March 25, 2018. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
179. ^ “Faturamento da indústria de alimentos cresceu 6,7% em 2019”. G1. February 18, 2020. Archived from the original on February 19, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
180. ^ “Indústria de alimentos e bebidas faturou R$699,9 bi em 2019”. Agência Brasil. February 18, 2020. Archived from the original on February 19, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
181. ^ “Produção nacional de celulose cai 6,6% em 2019, aponta Ibá”. Valor Econômico. February 21, 2020. Archived from the original on February 21, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
182. ^ “Sabe qual é o estado brasileiro que mais produz Madeira?”. October 9, 2017. Archived from the original on October 12, 2017. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
183. ^ “São Mateus é o 6º maior produtor de madeira em tora para papel e celulose no país, diz IBGE”. G1. September 28, 2017. Archived from the original on June 14, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
184. ^ “Indústrias calçadistas em Franca, SP registram queda de 40% nas vagas de trabalho em 6 anos”. G1. July 14, 2019. Archived from the original on July 14, 2019. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
185. ^ Digital, Agência Maya: Criação de Sites e Marketing. “Fenac – Centro de Eventos e Negócios | Produção de calçados deve crescer 3% em 2019”. fenac.com.br. Archived from the original on November 1, 2019. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
186. ^ “Abicalçados apresenta Relatório Setorial 2019”. abicalcados.com.br. Archived from the original on April 22, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
187. ^ “Exportação de Calçados: Saiba mais”. February 27, 2020. Archived from the original on April 15, 2022. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
188. ^ Comércio, Diário do (January 24, 2020). “Minas Gerais produz 32,3% do aço nacional em 2019”. Archived from the original on June 14, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
189. ^ “O novo mapa das montadoras, que agora rumam para o interior do País”. March 8, 2019. Archived from the original on March 8, 2019. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
190. ^ “Indústria automobilística do Sul do Rio impulsiona superavit na economia”. G1. July 12, 2017. Archived from the original on July 19, 2017. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
191. ^ “Indústria Química no Brasil” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 9, 2022. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
192. ^ “Estudo de 2018” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
193. ^ “Produção nacional da indústria de químicos cai 5,7% em 2019, diz Abiquim”. economia.uol.com.br. Archived from the original on June 14, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
194. ^ “Industria Textil no Brasil”. Archived from the original on June 19, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
195. ^ Jump up to:^a b “Anuário CNT do transporte 2018”. Archived from the original on November 11, 2019. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
196. ^ “Transporte en Cifras Estadísticas 2015”. Archived from the original on January 27, 2021. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
197. ^ “Carta Caminera 2017” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on April 14, 2021. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
198. ^ CIA – The World Factbook Archived January 26, 2021, at the Wayback Machine. CIA World Factbook. Retrieved on December 20, 2010
199. ^ Jump up to:^a b Infraestructura Carretera Archived July 16, 2007, at the Wayback Machine. Secretaría de Comunicaciones y Transportes. México. Retrieved January 13, 2007
200. ^ With data from The World Factbook
201. ^ Jump up to:^a b “Brasil tem 9 dos maiores aeroportos da América Latina”. October 29, 2018. Archived from the original on January 11, 2021. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
202. ^ Ranking on the number of airports per country Archived January 19, 2018, at the Wayback Machine. CIA Factbook
203. ^ Infrastructuras Archived February 2, 2009, at the Wayback Machine. Información de México. Ministerio de Industria, Turismo y Comercio de España.
204. ^ Jump up to:^a b “Port Activity of Latin America and the Caribbean 2018” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on January 14, 2021. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
205. ^ “The World Factbook — Central Intelligence”. July 12, 2022. Archived from the original on August 12, 2021. Retrieved January 24, 2021.
206. ^ “Diagnostico Transporte” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on March 7, 2023. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
207. ^ “Produção de petróleo e gás no Brasil ultrapassa 4 milhões de boe/d pela primeira vez”. anp.gov.br. Archived from the original on February 20, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
208. ^ “How many power plants do we have in Brazil?”. April 5, 2019. Archived from the original on October 31, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
209. ^ “Brasil alcança 170 mil megawatts de capacidade instalada em 2019”. Archived from the original on April 13, 2021. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
210. ^ “IEMA (Instituto de Energia e Meio Ambiente),2016.Série TERMOELETRICIDADE EM FOCO: Uso de água em termoelétricas” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on April 1, 2018.
211. ^ “O BNDES e a questão energética e logística da Região Sudeste” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on July 9, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
212. ^ “Power: World’s biggest hydroelectric facility”. Archived from the original on May 19, 2006.
213. ^ “Boletim Mensal de Geração Eólica Fevereiro/2021” (PDF) (in Portuguese). Operador Nacional do Sistema Elétrico – ONS. February 20, 2021. pp. 6, 14. Archived (PDF) from the original on April 10, 2021. Retrieved April 7, 2021.
214. ^ “Eólica supera 22 GW em operação no Brasil” (in Brazilian Portuguese). Megawhar. July 21, 2022. Archived from the original on March 15, 2023. Retrieved August 2, 2022.
215. ^ “Brasil é o país com melhor fator de aproveitamento da energia eólica”. Governo do Brasil (in Brazilian Portuguese). Archived from the original on October 7, 2018. Retrieved October 7, 2018.
216. ^ “Boletim Trimestral de Energia Eólica – Junho de 2020” (PDF) (in Brazilian Portuguese). Empresa de Pesquisa Energética. June 23, 2020. p. 4. Archived (PDF) from the original on August 11, 2021. Retrieved October 24, 2020.
217. ^ Jump up to:^a b “Quantas usinas geradoras de energia temos no Brasil?”. April 5, 2019. Archived from the original on October 31, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
218. ^ “Ventos promissores a caminho”. Archived from the original on November 29, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
219. ^ “Brazilian onshore wind potential could be 880 GW, study indicates”. Archived from the original on August 14, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
220. ^ Jump up to:^a b c “Renewable capacity statistics 2021” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on August 27, 2021. Retrieved April 23, 2021.
221. ^ “Global wind statistics” (PDF). IRENA. April 22, 2022. Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved April 22, 2022.
222. ^ Jump up to:^a b Ritchie, Hannah; Roser, Max; Rosado, Pablo (October 27, 2022). “Energy”. Our World in Data. Archived from the original on August 4, 2020. Retrieved October 27, 2022 – via ourworldindata.org.
223. ^ “Nuclear Power in Brazil. Briefing Paper # 95”. Uranium Information Centre. May 2007. Archived from the original on February 8, 2007. Retrieved May 19, 2007.
224. ^ “Brazil plans to build seven nuclear reactors”. Mecropress. October 23, 2006. Archived from the original on February 19, 2007. Retrieved May 19, 2007.
225. ^ “Solar atinge 21 GW e R$ 108,6 bi em investimentos no Brasil”. canalenergia.com.br. Archived from the original on April 1, 2023. Retrieved October 27, 2022.
226. ^ “Quais as melhores regiões do Brasil para geração de energia fotovoltaica? – Sharenergy”. Sharenergy (in Brazilian Portuguese). February 3, 2017. Archived from the original on October 7, 2018. Retrieved October 7, 2018.
227. ^ “Boletim Mensal de Geração Solar Fotovoltaica Setembro/2020” (PDF) (in Portuguese). Operador Nacional do Sistema Elétrico – ONS. October 13, 2020. pp. 6, 13. Archived (PDF) from the original on November 2, 2020. Retrieved October 21, 2020.
228. ^ “RENEWABLE CAPACITY STATISTICS 2022” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved October 27, 2022.
229. ^ “RENEWABLE CAPACITY STATISTICS 2021 page 41” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on August 27, 2021. Retrieved May 24, 2021.
230. ^ “Annual production of oil and other liquids”. Archived from the original on June 27, 2020. Retrieved December 5, 2020.
231. ^ IEA. Key World Energy Statistics 2014. Natural Gas. Archived October 21, 2014, at the Wayback Machine Access date – January 17, 2021
232. ^ “html CIA. The World Factbook. Natural gas – production”.^{[dead link]}
233. ^ Jump up to:^a b “China’s Growing Influence in Latin America”. Council on Foreign Relations. Archived from the original on May 5, 2022. Retrieved May 5, 2022.
234. ^ “China Faces ‘Creditor Trap’ in Lending to Latin America: Q&A”. Bloomberg News. February 22, 2022. Archived from the original on May 5, 2022. Retrieved May 5, 2022.
235. ^ Baisotti, Pablo (2022). New Global Cities in Latin America and Asia: Welcome to the Twenty-First Century. University of Michigan Press. p. 324. doi:10.3998/mpub.12105185. ISBN 9780472902743. JSTOR 10.3998/mpub.12105185. Archived from the original on May 18, 2022. Retrieved May 18, 2022.
236. ^ Altés, Carmen. “El turismo en América Latina y el Caribe y la experiencia del BID” [Tourism in Latin America and the Caribbean and the experience of the IDB]. Ingresos directos por turismo internacional. Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). Archived from the original on January 18, 2012. Retrieved May 3, 2009.
237. ^ UNWTO Tourism Highlights 2018 Edition. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). 2018. doi:10.18111/9789284419876. ISBN 9789284419876. S2CID 240334031. Archived from the original on September 26, 2019. Retrieved September 1, 2018.
238. ^ “ANUÁRIO ESTATÍSTICO DE TURISMO 2021 BRASIL” (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 1, 2022. Retrieved October 1, 2022.
239. ^ Destape, El (December 10, 2021). “Los 10 destinos más visitados de Argentina según los portales de turismo”. www.eldestapeweb.com. Archived from the original on October 1, 2022. Retrieved October 1, 2022.
240. ^ Jump up to:^a b UNWTO Tourism Highlights 2017 Edition. World Tourism Organization (UNWTO). 2017. doi:10.18111/9789284419029. ISBN 9789284419029. Archived from the original on September 21, 2017. Retrieved September 7, 2017.
241. ^ Altés, Carmen. “El turismo en América Latina y el Caribe y la experiencia del BID” [Tourism in Latin America and the Caribbean and the experience of the IDB]. Figura 1: Ingresos por turismo internacional (% de exportaciones). Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). Archived from the original on January 18, 2012. Retrieved May 3, 2009.
242. ^ Altés, Carmen. “El turismo en América Latina y el Caribe y la experiencia del BID” [Tourism in Latin America and the Caribbean and the experience of the IDB]. Figura 2: Ingresos por turismo internacional (% del PIB). Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). Archived from the original on January 18, 2012. Retrieved May 3, 2009.
243. ^ Altés, Carmen. “El turismo en América Latina y el Caribe y la experiencia del BID” [Tourism in Latin America and the Caribbean and the experience of the IDB]. Figura 3: Empleo en turismo (% del empleo total). Inter-American Development Bank (IDB). Archived from the original on January 18, 2012. Retrieved May 3, 2009.
244. ^ “The Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Report 2011” (PDF). Table 1: Travel & Tourism Competitiveness Index 2011 and 2009 comparison. World Economic Forum (WEF). Archived (PDF) from the original on October 9, 2022. Retrieved March 16, 2011.
245. ^ “Traditional Nicaraguan Costumes: Mestizaje Costume”. ViaNica.com. Retrieved November 21, 2007.
246. ^ Stepan, Nancy Leys (1991). “The Hour of Eugenics”: Race, Gender, and Nation in Latin America. Ithaca: Cornell University Press. in passim. ISBN 978-0-8014-9795-7.
247. ^ Giannelli, Anthony (April 28, 2021). “Decolonizing Identity through Latin American Visual Art”. Artland Magazine. Archived from the original on July 2, 2022. Retrieved July 2, 2022.
248. ^ Perez-Barreiro, Gabriel (December 1994). “Constructivism in Latin America”. University of Essex Collection of Latin American Art.
249. ^ “Kobro and Strzemiński. Avant-Garde Prototypes”. Issuu. November 29, 2017. Archived from the original on May 3, 2019. Retrieved May 3, 2019.
250. ^ “Frida Kahlo “Roots” Sets $5.6 Million Record at Sotheby’s”. Art Knowledge News. Archived from the original on June 20, 2007. Retrieved September 23, 2007.
251. ^ Notimex / El Siglo De Torreón (April 1, 2012). “Fernando Botero, el gran artista de Latinoamérica”. Elsiglodetorreon.com.mx. Archived from the original on May 25, 2017. Retrieved December 9, 2013.
252. ^ “Fernando Botero, el aprendiz eterno”. Revistaenie.clarin.com. October 6, 2013. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved December 9, 2013.
253. ^ Forero, Juan (May 8, 2005). “‘Great Crime’ at Abu Ghraib Enrages and Inspires an Artist”. The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 16, 2014. Retrieved February 19, 2017.
254. ^ “Oswaldo Guayasamin”. Archived from the original on January 22, 2023. Retrieved January 22, 2023.
255. ^ “The life and art of famous Ecuadorian painter Oswaldo Guayasamín”. February 10, 2020. Archived from the original on January 22, 2023. Retrieved January 22, 2023.
256. ^ Paul A. Schroeder Rodriguez. Latin American Cinema: A Comparative History (University of California Press; 2016) studies 50 films since the silent era.
257. ^ Bacherbas (September 11, 2017). “Los latinos al Óscar 2018: Chile”. Premios Óscar Latinos. Retrieved September 11, 2017.
258. ^ “Juan Gabriel, superstar Mexican singer, dies at 66”. Los Angeles Times. Archived from the original on May 30, 2019. Retrieved August 28, 2016.
259. ^ Washburne, Christopher. “Clave: The African Roots of Salsa”. University of Salsa. Archived from the original on May 7, 2006. Retrieved May 23, 2006.
260. ^ “Guide to Latin Music”. Caravan Music. Archived from the original on May 6, 2006. Retrieved May 23, 2006.
261. ^ “Heitor Villa-Lobos”. Leadership Medica. Archived from the original on August 11, 2006. Retrieved May 23, 2006.
262. ^ “Latin music returns to America with wave of new pop starlets”. The Michigan Daily. Archived from the original on August 30, 2005. Retrieved May 23, 2006.
263. ^ “Daddy Yankee leads the reggaeton charge”. Associated Press. Archived from the original on May 25, 2017. Retrieved May 23, 2006.
264. ^ World Heritage List Archived March 14, 2021, at the Wayback Machine, UNESCO World Heritage Sites official sites.