PM Modi stated that the BJP aims to foster dialogue between states and accused Congress of doing “nothing” for farmers’ welfare.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi on Tuesday criticized the Congress party, accusing it of not promoting farmers’ welfare and preventing others from doing so. Speaking at the “Ek Varsh-Parinaam Utkarsh” event in Jaipur, which marked one year of the BJP-led government in Rajasthan, Modi highlighted the party’s commitment to improving the lives of farmers and promoting development in the state.

He emphasized that under the BJP’s leadership, the focus has been on providing direct benefits to farmers, strengthening infrastructure, and fostering a positive environment for agriculture. According to Modi, the BJP has worked to resolve long-standing issues that the Congress party failed to address during its tenure.

Modi also targeted the Congress for allegedly promoting division and sowing discord among states over water disputes, suggesting that their actions have been counterproductive to national unity and development. He reiterated that the BJP’s vision is to bring states together through constructive dialogue and cooperation, rather than encouraging conflicts.

The Prime Minister praised the achievements of the state government over the past year, mentioning the significant steps taken in welfare schemes, economic growth, and infrastructure development. He assured the people of Rajasthan that the BJP would continue to focus on ensuring prosperity, justice, and overall well-being for all citizens.

COURTESY: Republic Bharat

Prime Minister Narendra Modi further accused the Congress of exacerbating river water disputes between states, a tactic he claimed was used to create division and hinder progress. He specifically cited the delay in completing the Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project (ERCP) as “direct proof” of Congress’s alleged intentions. Modi claimed that while the BJP government has been focused on resolving such issues for the betterment of the people, the Congress party’s actions have only served to stall important projects and hinder development.

He pointed out that the ERCP, which aims to provide water to drought-prone areas in Rajasthan, has faced unnecessary delays under the Congress government, preventing the state from addressing its water scarcity challenges. According to Modi, the BJP is committed to fast-tracking such vital projects and ensuring that water resources are effectively utilized for the welfare of the people.

Modi also stressed that while Congress had failed to deliver on these crucial issues, the BJP government is actively working to bring lasting solutions and build a prosperous future for the people of Rajasthan and the country as a whole.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi, during a public meeting in Dadiya, Rajasthan, launched a strong criticism of the Congress party, accusing it of never addressing the water problems faced by farmers in the state. He said, “The Congress never wants to reduce water problems…The water of our rivers used to flow across the borders, but our farmers did not get its benefits. Instead of finding a solution, the Congress continued to promote water disputes between states.”

COURTESY: NarendraModi

Modi emphasized that while Congress failed to resolve such critical issues, the BJP government has been focused on finding practical solutions to ensure that the water from the rivers benefits the farmers directly. He claimed that the Congress’s actions only led to prolonged disputes over river water allocation without any concrete outcomes for the people. The Prime Minister assured that under the BJP’s leadership, the focus would be on bringing an end to such disputes and ensuring the equitable distribution of water resources for agricultural development and the well-being of the people.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi further criticized the Congress party, saying, “They talk big in the name of farmers but neither do they do anything for the farmers themselves, nor do they let others do it.” He accused the Congress of creating obstacles that prevented progress in the welfare of farmers, highlighting the party’s failure to implement meaningful changes for their benefit. Modi stressed that the BJP, in contrast, was committed to making tangible improvements for farmers and ensuring their needs were prioritized in policy decisions.

Prime Minister Modi emphasized that the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) aims to foster constructive dialogue between states to resolve issues, particularly those related to water disputes. He contrasted this approach with that of the Congress, which he accused of exacerbating tensions between states and hindering progress. Modi stressed that the BJP believes in collaboration and consensus to address regional challenges, including water management, for the benefit of the people.

Prime Minister Modi highlighted the BJP’s commitment to cooperation and solutions, stating that his government prioritizes collaborative efforts over opposition. He pointed to the Eastern Rajasthan Canal Project (ERCP), which has been approved and expanded under BJP leadership. He also mentioned that after the BJP formed governments in Madhya Pradesh and Rajasthan, an agreement was reached on the Parvati-Kalisindh-Chambal project. Modi emphasized that these steps reflect the party’s dedication to resolving water issues and ensuring sustainable development for farmers.

COURTESY: Narendra Modi

Prime Minister Modi also addressed the Sardar Sarovar Dam project in Gujarat, accusing the Congress and certain non-governmental organizations of using various tactics to block its completion. He criticized the Congress for not wanting to resolve water issues, pointing out that the water from India’s rivers used to flow across borders without benefiting Indian farmers. Modi stressed that such actions hindered the potential for addressing water scarcity and improving conditions for farmers. The Sardar Sarovar Dam, according to Modi, was an essential project aimed at bringing water benefits to Gujarat’s farmers, which was obstructed for years by opposition forces.

During the event in Jaipur, Prime Minister Narendra Modi laid the foundation stone for 24 major infrastructure projects worth over ₹46,400 crore. These projects span across sectors such as energy, roads, railways, and water. He emphasized that the Parvati, Kalisindh, and Chambal project would not only provide irrigation and drinking water to 21 districts in Rajasthan but would also boost the development of border regions in neighboring Madhya Pradesh. The projects aim to address critical issues of water supply and infrastructure, driving economic growth and improving the quality of life for the people in these areas.

Prime Minister Narendra Modi also discussed the results of the 2024 Lok Sabha elections, highlighting the historic mandate given to the NDA for a third consecutive term. He expressed his appreciation for Chief Minister Bajan Lal Sharma, commending him for “laying a strong foundation for the state’s development.” PM Modi emphasized the government’s commitment to furthering progress and ensuring the welfare of the people through continued efforts in governance and development.

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    • The Essential Desk Reference, Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 76, ISBN 978-0-19-512873-4 “Official name: Republic of India.”;
    • John Da Graça (2017), Heads of State and Government, London: Macmillan, p. 421, ISBN 978-1-349-65771-1 “Official name: Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya (Hindi)”;
    • Graham Rhind (2017), Global Sourcebook of Address Data Management: A Guide to Address Formats and Data in 194 Countries, Taylor & Francis, p. 302, ISBN 978-1-351-93326-1 “Official name: Republic of India; Bharat.”;
    • Bradnock, Robert W. (2015), The Routledge Atlas of South Asian Affairs, Routledge, p. 108, ISBN 978-1-317-40511-5 “Official name: English: Republic of India; Hindi:Bharat Ganarajya”;
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21. ^ “Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management)” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 March 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2008.
22. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Petraglia & Allchin 2007, p. 10, “Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. … Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73 and 55 ka.”
23. ^ Jump up to:^a b Dyson 2018, p. 1, “Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. … it is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present.”
24. ^ Jump up to:^a b Fisher 2018, p. 23, “Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago.”
25. ^ Dyson 2018, p. 28
26. ^ (a) Dyson 2018, pp. 4–5;
    (b) Fisher 2018, p. 33
27. ^ Lowe 2015, pp. 1–2, “It consists of 1,028 hymns (sūktas), highly crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India.”
28. ^ (a) Witzel 2003, pp. 68–70, “It is known from internal evidence that the Vedic texts were orally composed in northern India, at first in the Greater Punjab and later on also in more eastern areas, including northern Bihar, between ca. 1500 BCE and ca. 500–400 BCE. The oldest text, the Rgveda, must have been more or less contemporary with the Mitanni texts of northern Syria/Iraq (1450–1350 BCE); […] The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalised early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is in fact something of a tape-recording of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present. […] The RV text was composed before the introduction and massive use of iron, that is before ca. 1200–1000 BCE.”;
    (b) Doniger 2014, pp. xviii, 10, “A Chronology of Hinduism: ca. 1500–1000 BCE Rig Veda; ca. 1200–900 BCE Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda […] Hindu texts began with the Rig Veda (‘Knowledge of Verses’), composed in northwest India around 1500 BCE; the first of the three Vedas, it is the earliest extant text composed in Sanskrit, the language of ancient India.”;
    (c) Ludden 2014, p. 19, “In Punjab, a dry region with grasslands watered by five rivers (hence ‘panch’ and ‘ab’) draining the western Himalayas, one prehistoric culture left no material remains, but some of its ritual texts were preserved orally over the millennia. The culture is called Aryan, and evidence in its texts indicates that it spread slowly south-east, following the course of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. Its elite called itself Arya (pure) and distinguished themselves sharply from others. Aryans led kin groups organized as nomadic horse-herding tribes. Their ritual texts are called Vedas, composed in Sanskrit. Vedic Sanskrit is recorded only in hymns that were part of Vedic rituals to Aryan gods. To be Aryan apparently meant to belong to the elite among pastoral tribes. Texts that record Aryan culture are not precisely datable, but they seem to begin around 1200 BCE with four collections of Vedic hymns (Rg, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva).”;
    (d) Dyson 2018, pp. 14–15, “Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an ‘Aryan invasion’ it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family. […] It seems likely that various small-scale migrations were involved in the gradual introduction of the predecessor language and associated cultural characteristics. However, there may not have been a tight relationship between movements of people on the one hand, and changes in language and culture on the other. Moreover, the process whereby a dynamic new force gradually arose—a people with a distinct ideology who eventually seem to have referred to themselves as ‘Arya’—was certainly two-way. That is, it involved a blending of new features which came from outside with other features—probably including some surviving Harappan influences—that were already present. Anyhow, it would be quite a few centuries before Sanskrit was written down. And the hymns and stories of the Arya people—especially the Vedas and the later Mahabharata and Ramayana epics—are poor guides as to historical events. Of course, the emerging Arya were to have a huge impact on the history of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, little is known about their early presence.”;
    (e) Robb 2011, pp. 46–, “The expansion of Aryan culture is supposed to have begun around 1500 BCE. It should not be thought that this Aryan emergence (though it implies some migration) necessarily meant either a sudden invasion of new peoples, or a complete break with earlier traditions. It comprises a set of cultural ideas and practices, upheld by a Sanskrit-speaking elite, or Aryans. The features of this society are recorded in the Vedas.”
29. ^ (a) Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2020), The Rigveda, Oxford University Press, pp. 2, 4, ISBN 978-0-19-063339-4, The RgVeda is one of the four Vedas, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the earliest evidence for what will become Hinduism. (p. 2) Although Vedic religion is very different in many regards from what is known as Classical Hinduism, the seeds are there. Gods like Visnu and Siva (under the name Rudra), who will become so dominant later, are already present in the Rgveda, though in roles both lesser than and different from those they will later play, and the principal Rgvedic gods like Indra remain in later Hinduism, though in diminished capacity (p. 4).;
    (b) Flood, Gavin (2020), “Introduction”, in Gavin Flood (ed.), The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Practice: Hindu Practice, Oxford University Press, pp. 4–, ISBN 978-0-19-105322-1, I take the term ‘Hinduism to meaningfully denote a range and history of practice characterised by a number of features, particularly reference to Vedic textual and sacrificial origins, belonging to endogamous social units (jati/varna), participating in practices that involve making an offering to a deity and receiving a blessing (puja), and a first-level cultural polytheism (although many Hindus adhere to a second-level monotheism in which many gods are regarded as emanations or manifestations of the one, supreme being).;
    (c) Michaels, Axel (2017). Patrick Olivelle, Donald R. Davis (ed.). The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Law: A New History of Dharmaśāstra. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 86–97. ISBN 978-0-19-100709-5. Almost all traditional Hindu families observe until today at least three samskaras (initiation, marriage, and death ritual). Most other rituals have lost their popularity, are combined with other rites of passage, or are drastically shortened. Although samskaras vary from region to region, from class (varna) to class, and from caste to caste, their core elements remain the same owing to the common source, the Veda, and a common priestly tradition preserved by the Brahmin priests. (p 86)
    (d) Flood, Gavin D. (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0. It is this Sansrit, vedic, tradition which has maintained a continuity into modern times and which has provided the most important resource and inspiration for Hindu traditions and individuals. The Veda is the foundation for most later developments in what is known as Hinduism.
30. ^ Dyson 2018, pp. 16, 25
31. ^ Dyson 2018, p. 16
32. ^ Fisher 2018, p. 59
33. ^ (a) Dyson 2018, pp. 16–17;
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34. ^ (a) Ludden 2014, pp. 28–29;
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40. ^ (a) Dyson 2018, p. 48;
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49. ^ Marshall, P. J. (2001), The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire, Cambridge University Press, p. 179, ISBN 978-0-521-00254-7, The first modern nationalist movement to arise in the non-European empire, and one that became an inspiration for many others, was the Indian Congress.
50. ^ Chiriyankandath, James (2016), Parties and Political Change in South Asia, Routledge, p. 2, ISBN 978-1-317-58620-3, South Asian parties include several of the oldest in the post-colonial world, foremost among them the 129-year-old Indian National Congress that led India to independence in 1947
51. ^ Fisher 2018, pp. 173–174: “The partition of South Asia that produced India and West and East Pakistan resulted from years of bitter negotiations and recriminations … The departing British also decreed that the hundreds of princes, who ruled one-third of the subcontinent and a quarter of its population, became legally independent, their status to be settled later. Geographical location, personal and popular sentiment, and substantial pressure and incentives from the new governments led almost all princes eventually to merge their domains into either Pakistan or India. … Each new government asserted its exclusive sovereignty within its borders, realigning all territories, animals, plants, minerals, and all other natural and human-made resources as either Pakistani or Indian property, to be used for its national development… Simultaneously, the central civil and military services and judiciary split roughly along religious ‘communal’ lines, even as they divided movable government assets according to a negotiated formula: 22.7 percent for Pakistan and 77.3 percent for India.”
52. ^ Chatterji, Joya; Washbrook, David (2013), “Introduction: Concepts and Questions”, in Chatterji, Joya; Washbrook, David (eds.), Routledge Handbook of the South Asian Diaspora, London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-48010-9, Joya Chatterji describes how the partition of the British Indian empire into the new nation states of India and Pakistan produced new diaspora on a vast, and hitherto unprecedented, scale, but hints that the sheer magnitude of refugee movements in South Asia after 1947 must be understood in the context of pre-existing migratory flows within the partitioned regions (see also Chatterji 2013). She also demonstrates that the new national states of India and Pakistan were quickly drawn into trying to stem this migration. As they put into place laws designed to restrict the return of partition emigrants, this produced new dilemmas for both new nations in their treatment of ‘overseas Indians’; and many of them lost their right to return to their places of origin in the subcontinent, and also their claims to full citizenship in host countries.
53. ^ Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partition of India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85661-4, archived from the original on 13 December 2016, retrieved 15 November 2015, When the British divided and quit India in August 1947, they not only partitioned the subcontinent with the emergence of the two nations of India and Pakistan but also the provinces of Punjab and Bengal. … Indeed for many the Indian subcontinent’s division in August 1947 is seen as a unique event which defies comparative historical and conceptual analysis
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55. ^ (a) Copland 2001, pp. 71–78;
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56. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, p. 327: “Even though much remains to be done, especially in regard to eradicating poverty and securing effective structures of governance, India’s achievements since independence in sustaining freedom and democracy have been singular among the world’s new nations.”
57. ^ Stein, Burton (2012), Arnold, David (ed.), A History of India, The Blackwell History of the World Series (2 ed.), Wiley-Blackwell, One of these is the idea of India as ‘the world’s largest democracy’, but a democracy forged less by the creation of representative institutions and expanding electorate under British rule than by the endeavours of India’s founding fathers – Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and Ambedkar – and the labours of the Constituent Assembly between 1946 and 1949, embodied in the Indian constitution of 1950. This democratic order, reinforced by the regular holding of nationwide elections and polling for the state assemblies, has, it can be argued, consistently underpinned a fundamentally democratic state structure – despite the anomaly of the Emergency and the apparent durability of the Gandhi-Nehru dynasty.
58. ^ Fisher 2018, pp. 184–185: “Since 1947, India’s internal disputes over its national identity, while periodically bitter and occasionally punctuated by violence, have been largely managed with remarkable and sustained commitment to national unity and democracy.”
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64. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, p. 266
65. ^ Dyson 2018, p. 216
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73. ^ Thieme 1970, pp. 447–450.
74. ^ Jump up to:^a b Kuiper 2010, p. 86.
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80. ^ Paturi, Joseph; Patterson, Roger (2016). “Hinduism (with Hare Krishna)”. In Hodge, Bodie; Patterson, Roger (eds.). World Religions & Cults Volume 2: Moralistic, Mythical and Mysticism Religions. United States: New Leaf Publishing Group. pp. 59–60. ISBN 978-0-89051-922-6. The actual term Hindu first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the Indus River. The term Hindu originated as a geographical term and did not refer to a religion. Later, Hindu was taken by European languages from the Arabic term al-Hind, which referred to the people who lived across the Indus River. This Arabic term was itself taken from the Persian term Hindū, which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name for India, meaning the “land of Hindus.”
81. ^ “Hindustan”, Encyclopædia Britannica, retrieved 17 July 2011
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154. ^ Stein 2010, p. 245: An expansion of state functions in British and in princely India occurred as a result of the terrible famines of the later nineteenth century, … A reluctant regime decided that state resources had to be deployed and that anti-famine measures were best managed through technical experts.
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177. ^ Fisher 2018, p. 83, ” East of the lower Indus lay the inhospitable Rann of Kutch and Thar Desert. East of the upper Indus lay the more promising but narrow corridor between the Himalayan foothills on the north and the Thar Desert and Aravalli Mountains on the south. At the strategic choke point, just before reaching the fertile, well-watered Gangetic plain, sat Delhi. On this site, where life giving streams running off the most northern spur of the rocky Aravalli ridge flowed into the Jumna river, and where the war-horse and war-elephant trade intersected, a series of dynasties built fortified capitals.”
178. ^ Mcgrail et al. 2003, p. 257.
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206. ^ Goyal, Anupam (2006), The WTO and International Environmental Law: Towards Conciliation, Oxford University Press, p. 295, ISBN 978-0-19-567710-2 Quote: “The Indian government successfully argued that the medicinal neem tree is part of traditional Indian knowledge. (page 295)”
207. ^ Hughes, Julie E. (2013), Animal Kingdoms, Harvard University Press, p. 106, ISBN 978-0-674-07480-4, At same time, the leafy pipal trees and comparative abundance that marked the Mewari landscape fostered refinements unattainable in other lands.
208. ^ Ameri, Marta (2018), “Letting the Pictures Speak: An Image-Based Approach to the Mythological and Narrative Imagery of the Harappan World”, in Ameri, Marta; Costello, Sarah Kielt; Jamison, Gregg; Scott, Sarah Jarmer (eds.), Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia, Cambridge University Press, pp. 156–157, ISBN 978-1-108-17351-3 Quote: “The last of the centaurs has the long, wavy, horizontal horns of a markhor, a human face, a heavy-set body that appears bovine, and a goat tail … This figure is often depicted by itself, but it is also consistently represented in scenes that seem to reflect the adoration of a figure in a pipal tree or arbour and which may be termed ritual. These include fully detailed scenes like that visible in the large ‘divine adoration’ seal from Mohenjo-daro.”
209. ^ Paul Gwynne (2011), World Religions in Practice: A Comparative Introduction, John Wiley & Sons, p. 358, ISBN 978-1-4443-6005-9, The tree under which Sakyamuni became the Buddha is a peepal tree (Ficus religiosa).
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219. ^ Tritsch 2001, p. 15Before it was so heavily settled and intensively exploited, the Punjab was dominated by thorn forest interspersed by rolling grasslands which were grazed on by millions of Blackbuck, accompanied by their dominant predator, the Cheetah. Always keen hunters, the Moghul princes kept tame cheetahs which were used to chase and bring down the Blackbuck. Today the Cheetah is extinct in India and the severely endangered Blackbuck no longer exists in the Punjab.
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270. ^ (a) Guyot-Rechard, Berenice (2017), Shadow States: India, China and the Himalayas, 1910–1962, Cambridge University Press, p. 235, ISBN 978-1-107-17679-9, By invading NEFA, the PRC did not just aim to force a humiliated India to recognise its possession of the Aksai Chin. It also hoped to get, once and for all, the upper hand in their shadowing competition.
     (b) Chubb, Andrew (2021), “The Sino-Indian Border Crisis: Chinese Perceptions of Indian Nationalism”, in Golley, Jane; Jaivan, Linda; Strange, Sharon (eds.), Crisis, Australian National University Press, pp. 231–232, ISBN 978-1-76046-439-4, The ensuing cycle of escalation culminated in the 1962 Sino-Indian border war in which Mao Zedong’s troops overran almost the entire state of Arunachal Pradesh in the eastern sector before unilaterally withdrawing, as if to underline the insult; most of the war’s several thousand casualties were Indian. The PLA’s decisive victories in the 1962 war not only humiliated the Indian Army, they also entrenched a status quo in Ladakh that was highly unfavourable for India, in which China controls almost all of the disputed territory. A nationalistic press and commentariat have kept 1962 vivid in India’s popular consciousness.
     (c) Lintner, Bertil (2018), China’s India War: Collision Course on the Roof of the World, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-909163-8, Lin Biao was put in charge of the operation and that alliance between Mao and his loyal de facto chief of the PLA made the attack on India possible. With China’s ultimate victory in the war, Mao’s ultra-leftist line had won in China; whatever critical voices that were left in the Party after all the purges fell silent.
     (d) Medcalf, Rory (2020), Indo-Pacific Empire: China, America and the contest for the world’s pivotal, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-1-5261-5077-6, From an Indian perspective, the China-India war of 1962 was a shocking betrayal of the principles of co-operation and coexistence: a surprise attack that humiliated India and personally broke Nehru.
     (e) Ganguly, Sumit (1997), The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War, Hope of Peace, Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Cambridge University Press, p. 44, ISBN 978-0-521-65566-8, In October 1962 India suffered the most humiliating military debacle in its post-independence history, at the hands of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA). The outcome of this conflict had far-reaching consequences for Indian foreign and defence policies. The harsh defeat that the Chinese PLA had inflicted on the Indian Army called into question some of the most deeply held precepts of Nehru’s foreign and defence policies.
     (f) Raghavan, Srinath (2019), “A Missed Opportunity? The Nehru-Zhou Enlai Summit of 1960”, in Bhagavan, Manu (ed.), India and the Cold War, University of North Carolina Press, p. 121, ISBN 978-1-4696-5117-0, The ‘forward policy’ adopted by India to prevent the Chinese from occupying territory claimed by them was undertaken in the mistaken belief that Beijing would be cautious in dealing with India owing to Moscow’s stance on the dispute and its growing proximity to India. These misjudgments would eventually culminate in India’s humiliating defeat in the war of October–November 1962.
271. ^ Brahma Chellaney (2006). Asian Juggernaut: The Rise of China, India, and Japan. HarperCollins. p. 195. ISBN 978-8172236502. Indeed, Beijing’s acknowledgement of Indian control over Sikkim seems limited to the purpose of facilitating trade through the vertiginous Nathu-la Pass, the scene of bloody artillery duels in September 1967 when Indian troops beat back attacking Chinese forces.
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     • John Da Graça (2017), Heads of State and Government, London: Macmillan, p. 421, ISBN 978-1-349-65771-1 “Official name: Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya (Hindi)”;
     • Graham Rhind (2017), Global Sourcebook of Address Data Management: A Guide to Address Formats and Data in 194 Countries, Taylor & Francis, p. 302, ISBN 978-1-351-93326-1 “Official name: Republic of India; Bharat.”;
     • Bradnock, Robert W. (2015), The Routledge Atlas of South Asian Affairs, Routledge, p. 108, ISBN 978-1-317-40511-5 “Official name: English: Republic of India; Hindi:Bharat Ganarajya”;
     • Penguin Compact Atlas of the World, Penguin, 2012, p. 140, ISBN 978-0-7566-9859-1 “Official name: Republic of India”;
     • Merriam-Webster’s Geographical Dictionary (3rd ed.), Merriam-Webster, 1997, pp. 515–516, ISBN 978-0-87779-546-9 “Officially, Republic of India”;
     • Complete Atlas of the World: The Definitive View of the Earth (3rd ed.), DK Publishing, 2016, p. 54, ISBN 978-1-4654-5528-4 “Official name: Republic of India”;
     • Worldwide Government Directory with Intergovernmental Organizations 2013, CQ Press, 2013, p. 726, ISBN 978-1-4522-9937-2
519. ^ “Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management)” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 March 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2008.
520. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Petraglia & Allchin 2007, p. 10, “Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. … Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73 and 55 ka.”
521. ^ Jump up to:^a b Dyson 2018, p. 1, “Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. … it is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present.”
522. ^ Jump up to:^a b Fisher 2018, p. 23, “Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago.”
523. ^ Dyson 2018, p. 28
524. ^ (a) Dyson 2018, pp. 4–5;
     (b) Fisher 2018, p. 33
525. ^ Lowe 2015, pp. 1–2, “It consists of 1,028 hymns (sūktas), highly crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India.”
526. ^ (a) Witzel 2003, pp. 68–70, “It is known from internal evidence that the Vedic texts were orally composed in northern India, at first in the Greater Punjab and later on also in more eastern areas, including northern Bihar, between ca. 1500 BCE and ca. 500–400 BCE. The oldest text, the Rgveda, must have been more or less contemporary with the Mitanni texts of northern Syria/Iraq (1450–1350 BCE); […] The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalised early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is in fact something of a tape-recording of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present. […] The RV text was composed before the introduction and massive use of iron, that is before ca. 1200–1000 BCE.”;
     (b) Doniger 2014, pp. xviii, 10, “A Chronology of Hinduism: ca. 1500–1000 BCE Rig Veda; ca. 1200–900 BCE Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda […] Hindu texts began with the Rig Veda (‘Knowledge of Verses’), composed in northwest India around 1500 BCE; the first of the three Vedas, it is the earliest extant text composed in Sanskrit, the language of ancient India.”;
     (c) Ludden 2014, p. 19, “In Punjab, a dry region with grasslands watered by five rivers (hence ‘panch’ and ‘ab’) draining the western Himalayas, one prehistoric culture left no material remains, but some of its ritual texts were preserved orally over the millennia. The culture is called Aryan, and evidence in its texts indicates that it spread slowly south-east, following the course of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. Its elite called itself Arya (pure) and distinguished themselves sharply from others. Aryans led kin groups organized as nomadic horse-herding tribes. Their ritual texts are called Vedas, composed in Sanskrit. Vedic Sanskrit is recorded only in hymns that were part of Vedic rituals to Aryan gods. To be Aryan apparently meant to belong to the elite among pastoral tribes. Texts that record Aryan culture are not precisely datable, but they seem to begin around 1200 BCE with four collections of Vedic hymns (Rg, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva).”;
     (d) Dyson 2018, pp. 14–15, “Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an ‘Aryan invasion’ it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family. […] It seems likely that various small-scale migrations were involved in the gradual introduction of the predecessor language and associated cultural characteristics. However, there may not have been a tight relationship between movements of people on the one hand, and changes in language and culture on the other. Moreover, the process whereby a dynamic new force gradually arose—a people with a distinct ideology who eventually seem to have referred to themselves as ‘Arya’—was certainly two-way. That is, it involved a blending of new features which came from outside with other features—probably including some surviving Harappan influences—that were already present. Anyhow, it would be quite a few centuries before Sanskrit was written down. And the hymns and stories of the Arya people—especially the Vedas and the later Mahabharata and Ramayana epics—are poor guides as to historical events. Of course, the emerging Arya were to have a huge impact on the history of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, little is known about their early presence.”;
     (e) Robb 2011, pp. 46–, “The expansion of Aryan culture is supposed to have begun around 1500 BCE. It should not be thought that this Aryan emergence (though it implies some migration) necessarily meant either a sudden invasion of new peoples, or a complete break with earlier traditions. It comprises a set of cultural ideas and practices, upheld by a Sanskrit-speaking elite, or Aryans. The features of this society are recorded in the Vedas.”
527. ^ (a) Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2020), The Rigveda, Oxford University Press, pp. 2, 4, ISBN 978-0-19-063339-4, The RgVeda is one of the four Vedas, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the earliest evidence for what will become Hinduism. (p. 2) Although Vedic religion is very different in many regards from what is known as Classical Hinduism, the seeds are there. Gods like Visnu and Siva (under the name Rudra), who will become so dominant later, are already present in the Rgveda, though in roles both lesser than and different from those they will later play, and the principal Rgvedic gods like Indra remain in later Hinduism, though in diminished capacity (p. 4).;
     (b) Flood, Gavin (2020), “Introduction”, in Gavin Flood (ed.), The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Practice: Hindu Practice, Oxford University Press, pp. 4–, ISBN 978-0-19-105322-1, I take the term ‘Hinduism to meaningfully denote a range and history of practice characterised by a number of features, particularly reference to Vedic textual and sacrificial origins, belonging to endogamous social units (jati/varna), participating in practices that involve making an offering to a deity and receiving a blessing (puja), and a first-level cultural polytheism (although many Hindus adhere to a second-level monotheism in which many gods are regarded as emanations or manifestations of the one, supreme being).;
     (c) Michaels, Axel (2017). Patrick Olivelle, Donald R. Davis (ed.). The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Law: A New History of Dharmaśāstra. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 86–97. ISBN 978-0-19-100709-5. Almost all traditional Hindu families observe until today at least three samskaras (initiation, marriage, and death ritual). Most other rituals have lost their popularity, are combined with other rites of passage, or are drastically shortened. Although samskaras vary from region to region, from class (varna) to class, and from caste to caste, their core elements remain the same owing to the common source, the Veda, and a common priestly tradition preserved by the Brahmin priests. (p 86)
     (d) Flood, Gavin D. (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0. It is this Sansrit, vedic, tradition which has maintained a continuity into modern times and which has provided the most important resource and inspiration for Hindu traditions and individuals. The Veda is the foundation for most later developments in what is known as Hinduism.
528. ^ Dyson 2018, pp. 16, 25
529. ^ Dyson 2018, p. 16
530. ^ Fisher 2018, p. 59
531. ^ (a) Dyson 2018, pp. 16–17;
     (b) Fisher 2018, p. 67;
     (c) Robb 2011, pp. 56–57;
     (d) Ludden 2014, pp. 29–30.
532. ^ (a) Ludden 2014, pp. 28–29;
     (b) Glenn Van Brummelen (2014), “Arithmetic”, in Thomas F. Glick; Steven Livesey; Faith Wallis (eds.), Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, pp. 46–48, ISBN 978-1-135-45932-1
533. ^ (a) Dyson 2018, p. 20;
     (b) Stein 2010, p. 90;
     (c) Ramusack, Barbara N. (1999), “Women in South Asia”, in Barbara N. Ramusack; Sharon L. Sievers (eds.), Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History, Indiana University Press, pp. 27–29, ISBN 0-253-21267-7
534. ^ Jump up to:^a b Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 93.
535. ^ Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 17
536. ^ (a) Ludden 2014, p. 54;
     (b) Asher & Talbot 2006, pp. 78–79;
     (c) Fisher 2018, p. 76
537. ^ (a) Ludden 2014, pp. 68–70;
     (b) Asher & Talbot 2006, pp. 19, 24
538. ^ (a) Dyson 2018, p. 48;
     (b) Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 52
539. ^ Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 74
540. ^ Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 267
541. ^ Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 152
542. ^ Jump up to:^a b Fisher 2018, p. 106
543. ^ (a) Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 289
     (b) Fisher 2018, p. 120
544. ^ Taylor, Miles (2016), “The British royal family and the colonial empire from the Georgians to Prince George”, in Aldrish, Robert; McCreery, Cindy (eds.), Crowns and Colonies: European Monarchies and Overseas Empires, Manchester University Press, pp. 38–39, ISBN 978-1-5261-0088-7
545. ^ Peers 2013, p. 76.
546. ^ Embree, Ainslie Thomas; Hay, Stephen N.; Bary, William Theodore De (1988), “Nationalism Takes Root: The Moderates”, Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India and Pakistan, Columbia University Press, p. 85, ISBN 978-0-231-06414-9
547. ^ Marshall, P. J. (2001), The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire, Cambridge University Press, p. 179, ISBN 978-0-521-00254-7, The first modern nationalist movement to arise in the non-European empire, and one that became an inspiration for many others, was the Indian Congress.
548. ^ Chiriyankandath, James (2016), Parties and Political Change in South Asia, Routledge, p. 2, ISBN 978-1-317-58620-3, South Asian parties include several of the oldest in the post-colonial world, foremost among them the 129-year-old Indian National Congress that led India to independence in 1947
549. ^ Fisher 2018, pp. 173–174: “The partition of South Asia that produced India and West and East Pakistan resulted from years of bitter negotiations and recriminations … The departing British also decreed that the hundreds of princes, who ruled one-third of the subcontinent and a quarter of its population, became legally independent, their status to be settled later. Geographical location, personal and popular sentiment, and substantial pressure and incentives from the new governments led almost all princes eventually to merge their domains into either Pakistan or India. … Each new government asserted its exclusive sovereignty within its borders, realigning all territories, animals, plants, minerals, and all other natural and human-made resources as either Pakistani or Indian property, to be used for its national development… Simultaneously, the central civil and military services and judiciary split roughly along religious ‘communal’ lines, even as they divided movable government assets according to a negotiated formula: 22.7 percent for Pakistan and 77.3 percent for India.”
550. ^ Chatterji, Joya; Washbrook, David (2013), “Introduction: Concepts and Questions”, in Chatterji, Joya; Washbrook, David (eds.), Routledge Handbook of the South Asian Diaspora, London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-48010-9, Joya Chatterji describes how the partition of the British Indian empire into the new nation states of India and Pakistan produced new diaspora on a vast, and hitherto unprecedented, scale, but hints that the sheer magnitude of refugee movements in South Asia after 1947 must be understood in the context of pre-existing migratory flows within the partitioned regions (see also Chatterji 2013). She also demonstrates that the new national states of India and Pakistan were quickly drawn into trying to stem this migration. As they put into place laws designed to restrict the return of partition emigrants, this produced new dilemmas for both new nations in their treatment of ‘overseas Indians’; and many of them lost their right to return to their places of origin in the subcontinent, and also their claims to full citizenship in host countries.
551. ^ Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partition of India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85661-4, archived from the original on 13 December 2016, retrieved 15 November 2015, When the British divided and quit India in August 1947, they not only partitioned the subcontinent with the emergence of the two nations of India and Pakistan but also the provinces of Punjab and Bengal. … Indeed for many the Indian subcontinent’s division in August 1947 is seen as a unique event which defies comparative historical and conceptual analysis
552. ^ Khan, Yasmin (2017) [2007], The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (2nd ed.), New Haven and London: Yale University Press, p. 1, ISBN 978-0-300-23032-1, South Asians learned that the British Indian empire would be partitioned on 3 June 1947. They heard about it on the radio, from relations and friends, by reading newspapers and, later, through government pamphlets. Among a population of almost four hundred million, where the vast majority live in the countryside, ploughing the land as landless peasants or sharecroppers, it is hardly surprising that many thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, did not hear the news for many weeks afterwards. For some, the butchery and forced relocation of the summer months of 1947 may have been the first that they knew about the creation of the two new states rising from the fragmentary and terminally weakened British empire in India
553. ^ (a) Copland 2001, pp. 71–78;
     (b) Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 222.
554. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, p. 327: “Even though much remains to be done, especially in regard to eradicating poverty and securing effective structures of governance, India’s achievements since independence in sustaining freedom and democracy have been singular among the world’s new nations.”
555. ^ Stein, Burton (2012), Arnold, David (ed.), A History of India, The Blackwell History of the World Series (2 ed.), Wiley-Blackwell, One of these is the idea of India as ‘the world’s largest democracy’, but a democracy forged less by the creation of representative institutions and expanding electorate under British rule than by the endeavours of India’s founding fathers – Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and Ambedkar – and the labours of the Constituent Assembly between 1946 and 1949, embodied in the Indian constitution of 1950. This democratic order, reinforced by the regular holding of nationwide elections and polling for the state assemblies, has, it can be argued, consistently underpinned a fundamentally democratic state structure – despite the anomaly of the Emergency and the apparent durability of the Gandhi-Nehru dynasty.
556. ^ Fisher 2018, pp. 184–185: “Since 1947, India’s internal disputes over its national identity, while periodically bitter and occasionally punctuated by violence, have been largely managed with remarkable and sustained commitment to national unity and democracy.”
557. ^ Dyson 2018, pp. 219, 262
558. ^ Biswas, Soutik (1 May 2023). “Most populous nation: Should India rejoice or panic?”. BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
559. ^ World Population Prospects 2022: Summary of Results (PDF). New York: United Nations Department of Social and Economic Affairs. 2022. pp. i.
560. ^ Fisher 2018, p. 8
561. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, pp. 265–266
562. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, p. 266
563. ^ Dyson 2018, p. 216
564. ^ (a) “Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent”, Encyclopaedia Britannica, archived from the original on 13 August 2019, retrieved 15 August 2019, Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent … has been the subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947.;
     (b) Pletcher, Kenneth, “Aksai Chin, Plateau Region, Asia”, Encyclopaedia Britannica, archived from the original on 2 April 2019, retrieved 16 August 2019, Aksai Chin, Chinese (Pinyin) Aksayqin, portion of the Kashmir region, … constitutes nearly all the territory of the Chinese-administered sector of Kashmir that is claimed by India;
     (c) Bosworth, C. E (2006). “Kashmir”. Encyclopedia Americana: Jefferson to Latin. Scholastic Library Publishing. p. 328. ISBN 978-0-7172-0139-6. KASHMIR, kash’mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partly by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947
565. ^ Narayan, Jitendra; John, Denny; Ramadas, Nirupama (2018). “Malnutrition in India: status and government initiatives”. Journal of Public Health Policy. 40 (1): 126–141. doi:10.1057/s41271-018-0149-5. ISSN 0197-5897. PMID 30353132. S2CID 53032234.
566. ^ Balakrishnan, Kalpana; Dey, Sagnik; et al. (2019). “The impact of air pollution on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy across the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017”. The Lancet Planetary Health. 3 (1): e26–e39. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30261-4. ISSN 2542-5196. PMC 6358127. PMID 30528905.
567. ^ Jump up to:^a b India, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 2019, archived from the original on 1 November 2020, retrieved 21 May 2019
568. ^ Jump up to:^a b “India State of Forest Report, 2021”. Forest Survey of India, National Informatics Centre. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
569. ^ Karanth & Gopal 2005, p. 374.
570. ^ “India (noun)”, Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.), 2009 (subscription required)
571. ^ Thieme 1970, pp. 447–450.
572. ^ Jump up to:^a b Kuiper 2010, p. 86.
573. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Clémentin-Ojha 2014.
574. ^ The Constitution of India (PDF), Ministry of Law and Justice, 1 December 2007, archived from the original (PDF) on 9 September 2014, retrieved 3 March 2012, Article 1(1): India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.
575. ^ Jha, Dwijendra Narayan (2014), Rethinking Hindu Identity, Routledge, p. 11, ISBN 978-1-317-49034-0
576. ^ Singh 2017, p. 253.
577. ^ Jump up to:^a b Barrow 2003.
578. ^ Paturi, Joseph; Patterson, Roger (2016). “Hinduism (with Hare Krishna)”. In Hodge, Bodie; Patterson, Roger (eds.). World Religions & Cults Volume 2: Moralistic, Mythical and Mysticism Religions. United States: New Leaf Publishing Group. pp. 59–60. ISBN 978-0-89051-922-6. The actual term Hindu first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the Indus River. The term Hindu originated as a geographical term and did not refer to a religion. Later, Hindu was taken by European languages from the Arabic term al-Hind, which referred to the people who lived across the Indus River. This Arabic term was itself taken from the Persian term Hindū, which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name for India, meaning the “land of Hindus.”
579. ^ “Hindustan”, Encyclopædia Britannica, retrieved 17 July 2011
580. ^ Lowe, John J. (2017). Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-19-879357-1. The term ‘Epic Sanskrit’ refers to the language of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. … It is likely, therefore, that the epic-like elements found in Vedic sources and the two epics that we have are not directly related, but that both drew on the same source, an oral tradition of storytelling that existed before, throughout, and after the Vedic period.
581. ^ Jump up to:^a b Coningham & Young 2015, pp. 104–105.
582. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 21–23.
583. ^ Jump up to:^a b Singh 2009, p. 181.
584. ^ Possehl 2003, p. 2.
585. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Singh 2009, p. 255.
586. ^ Jump up to:^a b Singh 2009, pp. 186–187.
587. ^ Witzel 2003, pp. 68–69.
588. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 41–43.
589. ^ Jump up to:^a b Singh 2009, pp. 250–251.
590. ^ Singh 2009, pp. 260–265.
591. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 53–54.
592. ^ Singh 2009, pp. 312–313.
593. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 54–56.
594. ^ Stein 1998, p. 21.
595. ^ Stein 1998, pp. 67–68.
596. ^ Singh 2009, p. 300.
597. ^ Jump up to:^a b Singh 2009, p. 319.
598. ^ Stein 1998, pp. 78–79.
599. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 70.
600. ^ Singh 2009, p. 367.
601. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 63.
602. ^ Stein 1998, pp. 89–90.
603. ^ Singh 2009, pp. 408–415.
604. ^ Stein 1998, pp. 92–95.
605. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 89–91.
606. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Singh 2009, p. 545.
607. ^ Stein 1998, pp. 98–99.
608. ^ Jump up to:^a b Stein 1998, p. 132.
609. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Stein 1998, pp. 119–120.
610. ^ Jump up to:^a b Stein 1998, pp. 121–122.
611. ^ Jump up to:^a b Stein 1998, p. 123.
612. ^ Jump up to:^a b Stein 1998, p. 124.
613. ^ Jump up to:^a b Stein 1998, pp. 127–128.
614. ^ Ludden 2002, p. 68.
615. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 47.
616. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 6.
617. ^ Ludden 2002, p. 67.
618. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, pp. 50–51.
619. ^ Jump up to:^a b Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 53.
620. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 12.
621. ^ Robb 2001, p. 80.
622. ^ Stein 1998, p. 164.
623. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 115.
624. ^ Robb 2001, pp. 90–91.
625. ^ Jump up to:^a b Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 17.
626. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 152.
627. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 158.
628. ^ Stein 1998, p. 169.
629. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 186.
630. ^ Jump up to:^a b Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 23–24.
631. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 256.
632. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 286.
633. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 44–49.
634. ^ Robb 2001, pp. 98–100.
635. ^ Ludden 2002, pp. 128–132.
636. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 51–55.
637. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 68–71.
638. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 289.
639. ^ Robb 2001, pp. 151–152.
640. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 94–99.
641. ^ Brown 1994, p. 83.
642. ^ Peers 2006, p. 50.
643. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 100–103.
644. ^ Brown 1994, pp. 85–86.
645. ^ Stein 1998, p. 239.
646. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 103–108.
647. ^ Robb 2001, p. 183.
648. ^ Sarkar 1983, pp. 1–4.
649. ^ Copland 2001, pp. ix–x.
650. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 123.
651. ^ Stein 1998, p. 260.
652. ^ Stein 2010, p. 245: An expansion of state functions in British and in princely India occurred as a result of the terrible famines of the later nineteenth century, … A reluctant regime decided that state resources had to be deployed and that anti-famine measures were best managed through technical experts.
653. ^ Stein 1998, p. 258.
654. ^ Jump up to:^a b Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 126.
655. ^ Jump up to:^a b Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 97.
656. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 163.
657. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 167.
658. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 195–197.
659. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 203.
660. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 231.
661. ^ “London Declaration, 1949”. Commonwealth. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
662. ^ “Role of Soviet Union in India’s industrialisation: a comparative assessment with the West” (PDF). ijrar.com.
663. ^ “Briefing Rooms: India”, Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 2009, archived from the original on 20 May 2011
664. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 265–266.
665. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 266–270.
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675. ^ Fisher 2018, p. 83, ” East of the lower Indus lay the inhospitable Rann of Kutch and Thar Desert. East of the upper Indus lay the more promising but narrow corridor between the Himalayan foothills on the north and the Thar Desert and Aravalli Mountains on the south. At the strategic choke point, just before reaching the fertile, well-watered Gangetic plain, sat Delhi. On this site, where life giving streams running off the most northern spur of the rocky Aravalli ridge flowed into the Jumna river, and where the war-horse and war-elephant trade intersected, a series of dynasties built fortified capitals.”
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717. ^ Tritsch 2001, p. 15Before it was so heavily settled and intensively exploited, the Punjab was dominated by thorn forest interspersed by rolling grasslands which were grazed on by millions of Blackbuck, accompanied by their dominant predator, the Cheetah. Always keen hunters, the Moghul princes kept tame cheetahs which were used to chase and bring down the Blackbuck. Today the Cheetah is extinct in India and the severely endangered Blackbuck no longer exists in the Punjab.
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768. ^ (a) Guyot-Rechard, Berenice (2017), Shadow States: India, China and the Himalayas, 1910–1962, Cambridge University Press, p. 235, ISBN 978-1-107-17679-9, By invading NEFA, the PRC did not just aim to force a humiliated India to recognise its possession of the Aksai Chin. It also hoped to get, once and for all, the upper hand in their shadowing competition.
     (b) Chubb, Andrew (2021), “The Sino-Indian Border Crisis: Chinese Perceptions of Indian Nationalism”, in Golley, Jane; Jaivan, Linda; Strange, Sharon (eds.), Crisis, Australian National University Press, pp. 231–232, ISBN 978-1-76046-439-4, The ensuing cycle of escalation culminated in the 1962 Sino-Indian border war in which Mao Zedong’s troops overran almost the entire state of Arunachal Pradesh in the eastern sector before unilaterally withdrawing, as if to underline the insult; most of the war’s several thousand casualties were Indian. The PLA’s decisive victories in the 1962 war not only humiliated the Indian Army, they also entrenched a status quo in Ladakh that was highly unfavourable for India, in which China controls almost all of the disputed territory. A nationalistic press and commentariat have kept 1962 vivid in India’s popular consciousness.
     (c) Lintner, Bertil (2018), China’s India War: Collision Course on the Roof of the World, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-909163-8, Lin Biao was put in charge of the operation and that alliance between Mao and his loyal de facto chief of the PLA made the attack on India possible. With China’s ultimate victory in the war, Mao’s ultra-leftist line had won in China; whatever critical voices that were left in the Party after all the purges fell silent.
     (d) Medcalf, Rory (2020), Indo-Pacific Empire: China, America and the contest for the world’s pivotal, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-1-5261-5077-6, From an Indian perspective, the China-India war of 1962 was a shocking betrayal of the principles of co-operation and coexistence: a surprise attack that humiliated India and personally broke Nehru.
     (e) Ganguly, Sumit (1997), The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War, Hope of Peace, Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Cambridge University Press, p. 44, ISBN 978-0-521-65566-8, In October 1962 India suffered the most humiliating military debacle in its post-independence history, at the hands of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA). The outcome of this conflict had far-reaching consequences for Indian foreign and defence policies. The harsh defeat that the Chinese PLA had inflicted on the Indian Army called into question some of the most deeply held precepts of Nehru’s foreign and defence policies.
     (f) Raghavan, Srinath (2019), “A Missed Opportunity? The Nehru-Zhou Enlai Summit of 1960”, in Bhagavan, Manu (ed.), India and the Cold War, University of North Carolina Press, p. 121, ISBN 978-1-4696-5117-0, The ‘forward policy’ adopted by India to prevent the Chinese from occupying territory claimed by them was undertaken in the mistaken belief that Beijing would be cautious in dealing with India owing to Moscow’s stance on the dispute and its growing proximity to India. These misjudgments would eventually culminate in India’s humiliating defeat in the war of October–November 1962.
769. ^ Brahma Chellaney (2006). Asian Juggernaut: The Rise of China, India, and Japan. HarperCollins. p. 195. ISBN 978-8172236502. Indeed, Beijing’s acknowledgement of Indian control over Sikkim seems limited to the purpose of facilitating trade through the vertiginous Nathu-la Pass, the scene of bloody artillery duels in September 1967 when Indian troops beat back attacking Chinese forces.
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946. ^ “More than 63 million women ‘missing’ in India, statistics show”. Associated Press via The Guardian. 30 January 2018. Retrieved 17 November 2019. Quote: “More than 63 million women are “missing” statistically across India, and more than 21 million girls are unwanted by their families, government officials say. The skewed ratio of men to women is largely the result of sex-selective abortions, and better nutrition and medical care for boys, according to the government’s annual economic survey, which was released on Monday. In addition, the survey found that “families where a son is born are more likely to stop having children than families where a girl is born”.
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962. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Alkazi, Roshen (2002), “Evolution of Indian Costume as a result of the links between Central Asia and India in ancient and medieval times”, in Rahman, Abdur (ed.), India’s Interaction with China, Central and West Asia, Oxford University Press, pp. 464–484, ISBN 978-0-19-565789-0
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964. ^ Stevenson, Angus; Waite, Maurice (2011), Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set, Oxford University Press, p. 774, ISBN 978-0-19-960110-3
965. ^ Platts, John T. (John Thompson) (1884), A dictionary of Urdu, classical Hindi, and English, London: W. H. Allen & Co., p. 418, archived from the original on 24 February 2021, retrieved 26 August 2019 (online; updated February 2015)
966. ^ Shukla, Pravina (2015), The Grace of Four Moons: Dress, Adornment, and the Art of the Body in Modern India, Indiana University Press, p. 71, ISBN 978-0-253-02121-2
967. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e} Dwyer, Rachel (2014), Bollywood’s India: Hindi Cinema as a Guide to Contemporary India, Reaktion Books, pp. 244–245, ISBN 978-1-78023-304-8
968. ^ Dwyer, Rachel (2013), “Bombay Ishtyle”, in Stella Bruzzi, Pamela Church Gibson (ed.), Fashion Cultures: Theories, Explorations and Analysis, Routledge, pp. 178–189, ISBN 978-1-136-29537-9
969. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Davidson, Alan (2014), The Oxford Companion to Food, Oxford University Press, p. 409, ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7
970. ^ Davidson, Alan (2014), The Oxford Companion to Food, Oxford University Press, p. 161, ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7, Chapatis are made from finely milled whole-wheat flour, called chapati flour or atta, and water. The dough is rolled into thin rounds which vary in size from region to region and then cooked without fat or oil on a slightly curved griddle called a tava.
971. ^ Tamang, J. P.; Fleet, G. H. (2009), “Yeasts Diversity in Fermented Foods and Beverages”, in Satyanarayana, T.; Kunze, G. (eds.), Yeast Biotechnology: Diversity and Applications, Springer, p. 180, ISBN 978-1-4020-8292-4, Idli is an acid-leavened and steamed cake made by bacterial fermentation of a thick batter made from coarsely ground rice and dehulled black gram. Idli cakes are soft, moist and spongy, have desirable sour flavour, and is eaten as breakfast in South India. Dosa batter is very similar to idli batter, except that both the rice and black gram are finely grounded. The batter is thinner than that of idli and is fried as a thin, crisp pancake and eaten directly in South India.
972. ^ Jhala, Angma Day (2015), Royal Patronage, Power and Aesthetics in Princely India, Routledge, p. 70, ISBN 978-1-317-31657-2, With the ascent of the Mughal Empire in sixteenth-century India, Turkic, Persian and Afghan traditions of dress, ‘architecture and cuisine’ were adopted by non-Muslim indigenous elites in South Asia. In this manner, Central Asian cooking merged with older traditions within the subcontinent, to create such signature dishes as biryani (a fusion of the Persian pilau and the spice-laden dishes of Hindustan), and the Kashmiri meat stew of Rogan Josh. It not only generated new dishes and entire cuisines, but also fostered novel modes of eating. Such newer trends included the consumption of Persian condiments, which relied heavily on almonds, pastries and quince jams, alongside Indian achars made from sweet limes, green vegetables and curds as side relishes during Mughlai meals.
973. ^ Panjabi, Camellia (1995), The Great Curries of India, Simon and Schuster, pp. 158–, ISBN 978-0-684-80383-8, The Muslim influenced breads of India are leavened, like naan, Khamiri roti, …
974. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Davidson, Alan (2014), The Oxford Companion to Food, Oxford University Press, p. 410, ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7
975. ^ Sahakian, Marlyne; Saloma, Czarina; Erkman, Suren (2016), Food Consumption in the City: Practices and patterns in urban Asia and the Pacific, Taylor & Francis, p. 50, ISBN 978-1-317-31050-1
976. ^ OECD; Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2018), OECD-FAO Agricultural Outlook 2018–2027, OECD Publishing, p. 21, ISBN 978-92-64-06203-0
977. ^ Roger 2000.
978. ^ Sengupta, Jayanta (2014), “India”, in Freedman, Paul; Chaplin, Joyce E.; Albala, Ken (eds.), Food in Time and Place: The American Historical Association Companion to Food History, University of California Press, p. 74, ISBN 978-0-520-27745-8
979. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Collingham, Elizabeth M. (2007), Curry: A Tale of Cooks and Conquerors, Oxford University Press, p. 25, ISBN 978-0-19-532001-5
980. ^ Nandy, Ashis (2004), “The Changing Popular Culture of Indian Food: Preliminary Notes”, South Asia Research, 24 (1): 9–19, CiteSeerX 10.1.1.830.7136, doi:10.1177/0262728004042760, ISSN 0262-7280, S2CID 143223986
981. ^ Srinivasan, Radhika; Jermyn, Leslie; Lek, Hui Hui (2001), India, Times Books International, p. 109, ISBN 978-981-232-184-8 Quote: “Girls in India usually play jump rope, or hopscotch, and five stones, tossing the stones up in the air and catching them in many different ways … the coconut-plucking contests, groundnut-eating races, … of rural India.”
982. ^ Wolpert 2003, p. 2.
983. ^ Rediff 2008 b.
984. ^ Graham, Bryan Armen (12 December 2024). “Gukesh Dommaraju becomes youngest world chess champion after horrific Ding Liren blunder”. The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 12 December 2024.
985. ^ Binmore 2007, p. 98.
986. ^ Shores, Lori (15 February 2007), Teens in India, Compass Point Books, p. 78, ISBN 978-0-7565-2063-2, archived from the original on 17 June 2012, retrieved 24 July 2011
987. ^ “What India was crazy about: Hockey first, Cricket later, Football, Kabaddi now?”. India Today. 14 August 2017.
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993. ^ “From IPL to ISL, sports leagues in India to watch out for”. The Financial Express. 26 September 2021. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
994. ^ “Indian Super League: Odisha president says sacking Stuart Baxter was ‘the only course of action'”. Sky Sports. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
995. ^ “Kabaddi gets the IPL treatment”. BBC News. 6 August 2014. Retrieved 3 December 2021.
996. References
997. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d National Informatics Centre 2005.
998. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d “National Symbols | National Portal of India”. India.gov.in. Archived from the original on 4 February 2017. Retrieved 1 March 2017. The National Anthem of India Jana Gana Mana, composed originally in Bengali by Rabindranath Tagore, was adopted in its Hindi version by the Constituent Assembly as the National Anthem of India on 24 January 1950.
999. ^ “National anthem of India: a brief on ‘Jana Gana Mana'”. News18. 14 August 2012. Archived from the original on 17 April 2019. Retrieved 7 June 2019.
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1006. ^ Eberhard, David M.; Simons, Gary F.; Fennig, Charles D. (2024). “India”. Ethnologue: Languages of the World (27 ed.).
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1008. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f} Library of Congress 2004.
1009. ^ Jump up to:^a b “World Population Prospects”. Population Division – United Nations. Retrieved 2 July 2023.
1010. ^ “Population Enumeration Data (Final Population)”. 2011 Census Data. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original on 22 May 2016. Retrieved 17 June 2016.
1011. ^ “A – 2 Decadal Variation in Population Since 1901” (PDF). 2011 Census Data. Office of the Registrar General & Census Commissioner, India. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 April 2016. Retrieved 17 June 2016.
1012. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e f} “World Economic Outlook Database, October 2024 Edition. (India)”. www.imf.org. International Monetary Fund. 22 October 2024. Retrieved 22 October 2024.
1013. ^ “Gini index (World Bank estimate) – India”. World Bank.
1014. ^ “Human Development Report 2023/24” (PDF). United Nations Development Programme. 13 March 2024. Retrieved 13 March 2024.
1015. ^ “List of all left- & right-driving countries around the world”. worldstandards.eu. 13 May 2020. Retrieved 10 June 2020.
1016. ^
      • The Essential Desk Reference, Oxford University Press, 2002, p. 76, ISBN 978-0-19-512873-4 “Official name: Republic of India.”;
      • John Da Graça (2017), Heads of State and Government, London: Macmillan, p. 421, ISBN 978-1-349-65771-1 “Official name: Republic of India; Bharat Ganarajya (Hindi)”;
      • Graham Rhind (2017), Global Sourcebook of Address Data Management: A Guide to Address Formats and Data in 194 Countries, Taylor & Francis, p. 302, ISBN 978-1-351-93326-1 “Official name: Republic of India; Bharat.”;
      • Bradnock, Robert W. (2015), The Routledge Atlas of South Asian Affairs, Routledge, p. 108, ISBN 978-1-317-40511-5 “Official name: English: Republic of India; Hindi:Bharat Ganarajya”;
      • Penguin Compact Atlas of the World, Penguin, 2012, p. 140, ISBN 978-0-7566-9859-1 “Official name: Republic of India”;
      • Merriam-Webster’s Geographical Dictionary (3rd ed.), Merriam-Webster, 1997, pp. 515–516, ISBN 978-0-87779-546-9 “Officially, Republic of India”;
      • Complete Atlas of the World: The Definitive View of the Earth (3rd ed.), DK Publishing, 2016, p. 54, ISBN 978-1-4654-5528-4 “Official name: Republic of India”;
      • Worldwide Government Directory with Intergovernmental Organizations 2013, CQ Press, 2013, p. 726, ISBN 978-1-4522-9937-2
1017. ^ “Ministry of Home Affairs (Department of Border Management)” (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 17 March 2015. Retrieved 1 September 2008.
1018. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Petraglia & Allchin 2007, p. 10, “Y-Chromosome and Mt-DNA data support the colonization of South Asia by modern humans originating in Africa. … Coalescence dates for most non-European populations average to between 73 and 55 ka.”
1019. ^ Jump up to:^a b Dyson 2018, p. 1, “Modern human beings—Homo sapiens—originated in Africa. Then, intermittently, sometime between 60,000 and 80,000 years ago, tiny groups of them began to enter the north-west of the Indian subcontinent. It seems likely that initially they came by way of the coast. … it is virtually certain that there were Homo sapiens in the subcontinent 55,000 years ago, even though the earliest fossils that have been found of them date to only about 30,000 years before the present.”
1020. ^ Jump up to:^a b Fisher 2018, p. 23, “Scholars estimate that the first successful expansion of the Homo sapiens range beyond Africa and across the Arabian Peninsula occurred from as early as 80,000 years ago to as late as 40,000 years ago, although there may have been prior unsuccessful emigrations. Some of their descendants extended the human range ever further in each generation, spreading into each habitable land they encountered. One human channel was along the warm and productive coastal lands of the Persian Gulf and northern Indian Ocean. Eventually, various bands entered India between 75,000 years ago and 35,000 years ago.”
1021. ^ Dyson 2018, p. 28
1022. ^ (a) Dyson 2018, pp. 4–5;
      (b) Fisher 2018, p. 33
1023. ^ Lowe 2015, pp. 1–2, “It consists of 1,028 hymns (sūktas), highly crafted poetic compositions originally intended for recital during rituals and for the invocation of and communication with the Indo-Aryan gods. Modern scholarly opinion largely agrees that these hymns were composed between around 1500 BCE and 1200 BCE, during the eastward migration of the Indo-Aryan tribes from the mountains of what is today northern Afghanistan across the Punjab into north India.”
1024. ^ (a) Witzel 2003, pp. 68–70, “It is known from internal evidence that the Vedic texts were orally composed in northern India, at first in the Greater Punjab and later on also in more eastern areas, including northern Bihar, between ca. 1500 BCE and ca. 500–400 BCE. The oldest text, the Rgveda, must have been more or less contemporary with the Mitanni texts of northern Syria/Iraq (1450–1350 BCE); […] The Vedic texts were orally composed and transmitted, without the use of script, in an unbroken line of transmission from teacher to student that was formalised early on. This ensured an impeccable textual transmission superior to the classical texts of other cultures; it is in fact something of a tape-recording of ca. 1500–500 BCE. Not just the actual words, but even the long-lost musical (tonal) accent (as in old Greek or in Japanese) has been preserved up to the present. […] The RV text was composed before the introduction and massive use of iron, that is before ca. 1200–1000 BCE.”;
      (b) Doniger 2014, pp. xviii, 10, “A Chronology of Hinduism: ca. 1500–1000 BCE Rig Veda; ca. 1200–900 BCE Yajur Veda, Sama Veda and Atharva Veda […] Hindu texts began with the Rig Veda (‘Knowledge of Verses’), composed in northwest India around 1500 BCE; the first of the three Vedas, it is the earliest extant text composed in Sanskrit, the language of ancient India.”;
      (c) Ludden 2014, p. 19, “In Punjab, a dry region with grasslands watered by five rivers (hence ‘panch’ and ‘ab’) draining the western Himalayas, one prehistoric culture left no material remains, but some of its ritual texts were preserved orally over the millennia. The culture is called Aryan, and evidence in its texts indicates that it spread slowly south-east, following the course of the Yamuna and Ganga Rivers. Its elite called itself Arya (pure) and distinguished themselves sharply from others. Aryans led kin groups organized as nomadic horse-herding tribes. Their ritual texts are called Vedas, composed in Sanskrit. Vedic Sanskrit is recorded only in hymns that were part of Vedic rituals to Aryan gods. To be Aryan apparently meant to belong to the elite among pastoral tribes. Texts that record Aryan culture are not precisely datable, but they seem to begin around 1200 BCE with four collections of Vedic hymns (Rg, Sama, Yajur, and Artharva).”;
      (d) Dyson 2018, pp. 14–15, “Although the collapse of the Indus valley civilization is no longer believed to have been due to an ‘Aryan invasion’ it is widely thought that, at roughly the same time, or perhaps a few centuries later, new Indo-Aryan-speaking people and influences began to enter the subcontinent from the north-west. Detailed evidence is lacking. Nevertheless, a predecessor of the language that would eventually be called Sanskrit was probably introduced into the north-west sometime between 3,900 and 3,000 years ago. This language was related to one then spoken in eastern Iran; and both of these languages belonged to the Indo-European language family. […] It seems likely that various small-scale migrations were involved in the gradual introduction of the predecessor language and associated cultural characteristics. However, there may not have been a tight relationship between movements of people on the one hand, and changes in language and culture on the other. Moreover, the process whereby a dynamic new force gradually arose—a people with a distinct ideology who eventually seem to have referred to themselves as ‘Arya’—was certainly two-way. That is, it involved a blending of new features which came from outside with other features—probably including some surviving Harappan influences—that were already present. Anyhow, it would be quite a few centuries before Sanskrit was written down. And the hymns and stories of the Arya people—especially the Vedas and the later Mahabharata and Ramayana epics—are poor guides as to historical events. Of course, the emerging Arya were to have a huge impact on the history of the subcontinent. Nevertheless, little is known about their early presence.”;
      (e) Robb 2011, pp. 46–, “The expansion of Aryan culture is supposed to have begun around 1500 BCE. It should not be thought that this Aryan emergence (though it implies some migration) necessarily meant either a sudden invasion of new peoples, or a complete break with earlier traditions. It comprises a set of cultural ideas and practices, upheld by a Sanskrit-speaking elite, or Aryans. The features of this society are recorded in the Vedas.”
1025. ^ (a) Jamison, Stephanie; Brereton, Joel (2020), The Rigveda, Oxford University Press, pp. 2, 4, ISBN 978-0-19-063339-4, The RgVeda is one of the four Vedas, which together constitute the oldest texts in Sanskrit and the earliest evidence for what will become Hinduism. (p. 2) Although Vedic religion is very different in many regards from what is known as Classical Hinduism, the seeds are there. Gods like Visnu and Siva (under the name Rudra), who will become so dominant later, are already present in the Rgveda, though in roles both lesser than and different from those they will later play, and the principal Rgvedic gods like Indra remain in later Hinduism, though in diminished capacity (p. 4).;
      (b) Flood, Gavin (2020), “Introduction”, in Gavin Flood (ed.), The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Practice: Hindu Practice, Oxford University Press, pp. 4–, ISBN 978-0-19-105322-1, I take the term ‘Hinduism to meaningfully denote a range and history of practice characterised by a number of features, particularly reference to Vedic textual and sacrificial origins, belonging to endogamous social units (jati/varna), participating in practices that involve making an offering to a deity and receiving a blessing (puja), and a first-level cultural polytheism (although many Hindus adhere to a second-level monotheism in which many gods are regarded as emanations or manifestations of the one, supreme being).;
      (c) Michaels, Axel (2017). Patrick Olivelle, Donald R. Davis (ed.). The Oxford History of Hinduism: Hindu Law: A New History of Dharmaśāstra. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. 86–97. ISBN 978-0-19-100709-5. Almost all traditional Hindu families observe until today at least three samskaras (initiation, marriage, and death ritual). Most other rituals have lost their popularity, are combined with other rites of passage, or are drastically shortened. Although samskaras vary from region to region, from class (varna) to class, and from caste to caste, their core elements remain the same owing to the common source, the Veda, and a common priestly tradition preserved by the Brahmin priests. (p 86)
      (d) Flood, Gavin D. (1996). An Introduction to Hinduism. Cambridge University Press. p. 35. ISBN 978-0-521-43878-0. It is this Sansrit, vedic, tradition which has maintained a continuity into modern times and which has provided the most important resource and inspiration for Hindu traditions and individuals. The Veda is the foundation for most later developments in what is known as Hinduism.
1026. ^ Dyson 2018, pp. 16, 25
1027. ^ Dyson 2018, p. 16
1028. ^ Fisher 2018, p. 59
1029. ^ (a) Dyson 2018, pp. 16–17;
      (b) Fisher 2018, p. 67;
      (c) Robb 2011, pp. 56–57;
      (d) Ludden 2014, pp. 29–30.
1030. ^ (a) Ludden 2014, pp. 28–29;
      (b) Glenn Van Brummelen (2014), “Arithmetic”, in Thomas F. Glick; Steven Livesey; Faith Wallis (eds.), Medieval Science, Technology, and Medicine: An Encyclopedia, Routledge, pp. 46–48, ISBN 978-1-135-45932-1
1031. ^ (a) Dyson 2018, p. 20;
      (b) Stein 2010, p. 90;
      (c) Ramusack, Barbara N. (1999), “Women in South Asia”, in Barbara N. Ramusack; Sharon L. Sievers (eds.), Women in Asia: Restoring Women to History, Indiana University Press, pp. 27–29, ISBN 0-253-21267-7
1032. ^ Jump up to:^a b Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 93.
1033. ^ Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 17
1034. ^ (a) Ludden 2014, p. 54;
      (b) Asher & Talbot 2006, pp. 78–79;
      (c) Fisher 2018, p. 76
1035. ^ (a) Ludden 2014, pp. 68–70;
      (b) Asher & Talbot 2006, pp. 19, 24
1036. ^ (a) Dyson 2018, p. 48;
      (b) Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 52
1037. ^ Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 74
1038. ^ Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 267
1039. ^ Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 152
1040. ^ Jump up to:^a b Fisher 2018, p. 106
1041. ^ (a) Asher & Talbot 2006, p. 289
      (b) Fisher 2018, p. 120
1042. ^ Taylor, Miles (2016), “The British royal family and the colonial empire from the Georgians to Prince George”, in Aldrish, Robert; McCreery, Cindy (eds.), Crowns and Colonies: European Monarchies and Overseas Empires, Manchester University Press, pp. 38–39, ISBN 978-1-5261-0088-7
1043. ^ Peers 2013, p. 76.
1044. ^ Embree, Ainslie Thomas; Hay, Stephen N.; Bary, William Theodore De (1988), “Nationalism Takes Root: The Moderates”, Sources of Indian Tradition: Modern India and Pakistan, Columbia University Press, p. 85, ISBN 978-0-231-06414-9
1045. ^ Marshall, P. J. (2001), The Cambridge Illustrated History of the British Empire, Cambridge University Press, p. 179, ISBN 978-0-521-00254-7, The first modern nationalist movement to arise in the non-European empire, and one that became an inspiration for many others, was the Indian Congress.
1046. ^ Chiriyankandath, James (2016), Parties and Political Change in South Asia, Routledge, p. 2, ISBN 978-1-317-58620-3, South Asian parties include several of the oldest in the post-colonial world, foremost among them the 129-year-old Indian National Congress that led India to independence in 1947
1047. ^ Fisher 2018, pp. 173–174: “The partition of South Asia that produced India and West and East Pakistan resulted from years of bitter negotiations and recriminations … The departing British also decreed that the hundreds of princes, who ruled one-third of the subcontinent and a quarter of its population, became legally independent, their status to be settled later. Geographical location, personal and popular sentiment, and substantial pressure and incentives from the new governments led almost all princes eventually to merge their domains into either Pakistan or India. … Each new government asserted its exclusive sovereignty within its borders, realigning all territories, animals, plants, minerals, and all other natural and human-made resources as either Pakistani or Indian property, to be used for its national development… Simultaneously, the central civil and military services and judiciary split roughly along religious ‘communal’ lines, even as they divided movable government assets according to a negotiated formula: 22.7 percent for Pakistan and 77.3 percent for India.”
1048. ^ Chatterji, Joya; Washbrook, David (2013), “Introduction: Concepts and Questions”, in Chatterji, Joya; Washbrook, David (eds.), Routledge Handbook of the South Asian Diaspora, London and New York: Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-48010-9, Joya Chatterji describes how the partition of the British Indian empire into the new nation states of India and Pakistan produced new diaspora on a vast, and hitherto unprecedented, scale, but hints that the sheer magnitude of refugee movements in South Asia after 1947 must be understood in the context of pre-existing migratory flows within the partitioned regions (see also Chatterji 2013). She also demonstrates that the new national states of India and Pakistan were quickly drawn into trying to stem this migration. As they put into place laws designed to restrict the return of partition emigrants, this produced new dilemmas for both new nations in their treatment of ‘overseas Indians’; and many of them lost their right to return to their places of origin in the subcontinent, and also their claims to full citizenship in host countries.
1049. ^ Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partition of India, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-85661-4, archived from the original on 13 December 2016, retrieved 15 November 2015, When the British divided and quit India in August 1947, they not only partitioned the subcontinent with the emergence of the two nations of India and Pakistan but also the provinces of Punjab and Bengal. … Indeed for many the Indian subcontinent’s division in August 1947 is seen as a unique event which defies comparative historical and conceptual analysis
1050. ^ Khan, Yasmin (2017) [2007], The Great Partition: The Making of India and Pakistan (2nd ed.), New Haven and London: Yale University Press, p. 1, ISBN 978-0-300-23032-1, South Asians learned that the British Indian empire would be partitioned on 3 June 1947. They heard about it on the radio, from relations and friends, by reading newspapers and, later, through government pamphlets. Among a population of almost four hundred million, where the vast majority live in the countryside, ploughing the land as landless peasants or sharecroppers, it is hardly surprising that many thousands, perhaps hundreds of thousands, did not hear the news for many weeks afterwards. For some, the butchery and forced relocation of the summer months of 1947 may have been the first that they knew about the creation of the two new states rising from the fragmentary and terminally weakened British empire in India
1051. ^ (a) Copland 2001, pp. 71–78;
      (b) Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 222.
1052. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, p. 327: “Even though much remains to be done, especially in regard to eradicating poverty and securing effective structures of governance, India’s achievements since independence in sustaining freedom and democracy have been singular among the world’s new nations.”
1053. ^ Stein, Burton (2012), Arnold, David (ed.), A History of India, The Blackwell History of the World Series (2 ed.), Wiley-Blackwell, One of these is the idea of India as ‘the world’s largest democracy’, but a democracy forged less by the creation of representative institutions and expanding electorate under British rule than by the endeavours of India’s founding fathers – Gandhi, Nehru, Patel and Ambedkar – and the labours of the Constituent Assembly between 1946 and 1949, embodied in the Indian constitution of 1950. This democratic order, reinforced by the regular holding of nationwide elections and polling for the state assemblies, has, it can be argued, consistently underpinned a fundamentally democratic state structure – despite the anomaly of the Emergency and the apparent durability of the Gandhi-Nehru dynasty.
1054. ^ Fisher 2018, pp. 184–185: “Since 1947, India’s internal disputes over its national identity, while periodically bitter and occasionally punctuated by violence, have been largely managed with remarkable and sustained commitment to national unity and democracy.”
1055. ^ Dyson 2018, pp. 219, 262
1056. ^ Biswas, Soutik (1 May 2023). “Most populous nation: Should India rejoice or panic?”. BBC News. British Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 3 May 2023.
1057. ^ World Population Prospects 2022: Summary of Results (PDF). New York: United Nations Department of Social and Economic Affairs. 2022. pp. i.
1058. ^ Fisher 2018, p. 8
1059. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, pp. 265–266
1060. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2012, p. 266
1061. ^ Dyson 2018, p. 216
1062. ^ (a) “Kashmir, region Indian subcontinent”, Encyclopaedia Britannica, archived from the original on 13 August 2019, retrieved 15 August 2019, Kashmir, region of the northwestern Indian subcontinent … has been the subject of dispute between India and Pakistan since the partition of the Indian subcontinent in 1947.;
      (b) Pletcher, Kenneth, “Aksai Chin, Plateau Region, Asia”, Encyclopaedia Britannica, archived from the original on 2 April 2019, retrieved 16 August 2019, Aksai Chin, Chinese (Pinyin) Aksayqin, portion of the Kashmir region, … constitutes nearly all the territory of the Chinese-administered sector of Kashmir that is claimed by India;
      (c) Bosworth, C. E (2006). “Kashmir”. Encyclopedia Americana: Jefferson to Latin. Scholastic Library Publishing. p. 328. ISBN 978-0-7172-0139-6. KASHMIR, kash’mer, the northernmost region of the Indian subcontinent, administered partly by India, partly by Pakistan, and partly by China. The region has been the subject of a bitter dispute between India and Pakistan since they became independent in 1947
1063. ^ Narayan, Jitendra; John, Denny; Ramadas, Nirupama (2018). “Malnutrition in India: status and government initiatives”. Journal of Public Health Policy. 40 (1): 126–141. doi:10.1057/s41271-018-0149-5. ISSN 0197-5897. PMID 30353132. S2CID 53032234.
1064. ^ Balakrishnan, Kalpana; Dey, Sagnik; et al. (2019). “The impact of air pollution on deaths, disease burden, and life expectancy across the states of India: the Global Burden of Disease Study 2017”. The Lancet Planetary Health. 3 (1): e26–e39. doi:10.1016/S2542-5196(18)30261-4. ISSN 2542-5196. PMC 6358127. PMID 30528905.
1065. ^ Jump up to:^a b India, International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), 2019, archived from the original on 1 November 2020, retrieved 21 May 2019
1066. ^ Jump up to:^a b “India State of Forest Report, 2021”. Forest Survey of India, National Informatics Centre. Retrieved 17 January 2022.
1067. ^ Karanth & Gopal 2005, p. 374.
1068. ^ “India (noun)”, Oxford English Dictionary (3rd ed.), 2009 (subscription required)
1069. ^ Thieme 1970, pp. 447–450.
1070. ^ Jump up to:^a b Kuiper 2010, p. 86.
1071. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Clémentin-Ojha 2014.
1072. ^ The Constitution of India (PDF), Ministry of Law and Justice, 1 December 2007, archived from the original (PDF) on 9 September 2014, retrieved 3 March 2012, Article 1(1): India, that is Bharat, shall be a Union of States.
1073. ^ Jha, Dwijendra Narayan (2014), Rethinking Hindu Identity, Routledge, p. 11, ISBN 978-1-317-49034-0
1074. ^ Singh 2017, p. 253.
1075. ^ Jump up to:^a b Barrow 2003.
1076. ^ Paturi, Joseph; Patterson, Roger (2016). “Hinduism (with Hare Krishna)”. In Hodge, Bodie; Patterson, Roger (eds.). World Religions & Cults Volume 2: Moralistic, Mythical and Mysticism Religions. United States: New Leaf Publishing Group. pp. 59–60. ISBN 978-0-89051-922-6. The actual term Hindu first occurs as a Persian geographical term for the people who lived beyond the Indus River. The term Hindu originated as a geographical term and did not refer to a religion. Later, Hindu was taken by European languages from the Arabic term al-Hind, which referred to the people who lived across the Indus River. This Arabic term was itself taken from the Persian term Hindū, which refers to all Indians. By the 13th century, Hindustan emerged as a popular alternative name for India, meaning the “land of Hindus.”
1077. ^ “Hindustan”, Encyclopædia Britannica, retrieved 17 July 2011
1078. ^ Lowe, John J. (2017). Transitive Nouns and Adjectives: Evidence from Early Indo-Aryan. Oxford University Press. p. 58. ISBN 978-0-19-879357-1. The term ‘Epic Sanskrit’ refers to the language of the two great Sanskrit epics, the Mahābhārata and the Rāmāyaṇa. … It is likely, therefore, that the epic-like elements found in Vedic sources and the two epics that we have are not directly related, but that both drew on the same source, an oral tradition of storytelling that existed before, throughout, and after the Vedic period.
1079. ^ Jump up to:^a b Coningham & Young 2015, pp. 104–105.
1080. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 21–23.
1081. ^ Jump up to:^a b Singh 2009, p. 181.
1082. ^ Possehl 2003, p. 2.
1083. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Singh 2009, p. 255.
1084. ^ Jump up to:^a b Singh 2009, pp. 186–187.
1085. ^ Witzel 2003, pp. 68–69.
1086. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 41–43.
1087. ^ Jump up to:^a b Singh 2009, pp. 250–251.
1088. ^ Singh 2009, pp. 260–265.
1089. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 53–54.
1090. ^ Singh 2009, pp. 312–313.
1091. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 54–56.
1092. ^ Stein 1998, p. 21.
1093. ^ Stein 1998, pp. 67–68.
1094. ^ Singh 2009, p. 300.
1095. ^ Jump up to:^a b Singh 2009, p. 319.
1096. ^ Stein 1998, pp. 78–79.
1097. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 70.
1098. ^ Singh 2009, p. 367.
1099. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 63.
1100. ^ Stein 1998, pp. 89–90.
1101. ^ Singh 2009, pp. 408–415.
1102. ^ Stein 1998, pp. 92–95.
1103. ^ Kulke & Rothermund 2004, pp. 89–91.
1104. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Singh 2009, p. 545.
1105. ^ Stein 1998, pp. 98–99.
1106. ^ Jump up to:^a b Stein 1998, p. 132.
1107. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Stein 1998, pp. 119–120.
1108. ^ Jump up to:^a b Stein 1998, pp. 121–122.
1109. ^ Jump up to:^a b Stein 1998, p. 123.
1110. ^ Jump up to:^a b Stein 1998, p. 124.
1111. ^ Jump up to:^a b Stein 1998, pp. 127–128.
1112. ^ Ludden 2002, p. 68.
1113. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 47.
1114. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 6.
1115. ^ Ludden 2002, p. 67.
1116. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, pp. 50–51.
1117. ^ Jump up to:^a b Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 53.
1118. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 12.
1119. ^ Robb 2001, p. 80.
1120. ^ Stein 1998, p. 164.
1121. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 115.
1122. ^ Robb 2001, pp. 90–91.
1123. ^ Jump up to:^a b Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 17.
1124. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 152.
1125. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 158.
1126. ^ Stein 1998, p. 169.
1127. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 186.
1128. ^ Jump up to:^a b Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 23–24.
1129. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 256.
1130. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 286.
1131. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 44–49.
1132. ^ Robb 2001, pp. 98–100.
1133. ^ Ludden 2002, pp. 128–132.
1134. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 51–55.
1135. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 68–71.
1136. ^ Asher & Talbot 2008, p. 289.
1137. ^ Robb 2001, pp. 151–152.
1138. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 94–99.
1139. ^ Brown 1994, p. 83.
1140. ^ Peers 2006, p. 50.
1141. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 100–103.
1142. ^ Brown 1994, pp. 85–86.
1143. ^ Stein 1998, p. 239.
1144. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 103–108.
1145. ^ Robb 2001, p. 183.
1146. ^ Sarkar 1983, pp. 1–4.
1147. ^ Copland 2001, pp. ix–x.
1148. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 123.
1149. ^ Stein 1998, p. 260.
1150. ^ Stein 2010, p. 245: An expansion of state functions in British and in princely India occurred as a result of the terrible famines of the later nineteenth century, … A reluctant regime decided that state resources had to be deployed and that anti-famine measures were best managed through technical experts.
1151. ^ Stein 1998, p. 258.
1152. ^ Jump up to:^a b Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 126.
1153. ^ Jump up to:^a b Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 97.
1154. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 163.
1155. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 167.
1156. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 195–197.
1157. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 203.
1158. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 231.
1159. ^ “London Declaration, 1949”. Commonwealth. Retrieved 11 October 2022.
1160. ^ “Role of Soviet Union in India’s industrialisation: a comparative assessment with the West” (PDF). ijrar.com.
1161. ^ “Briefing Rooms: India”, Economic Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, 2009, archived from the original on 20 May 2011
1162. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 265–266.
1163. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 266–270.
1164. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 253.
1165. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 274.
1166. ^ Jump up to:^a b Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, pp. 247–248.
1167. ^ Metcalf & Metcalf 2006, p. 304.
1168. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Ali & Aitchison 2005.
1169. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023, p. 7.
1170. ^ Prakash et al. 2000.
1171. ^ Kaul 1970, p. 160, ” The Aravalli range boldy defines the eastern limit of the arid and semi-arid zone. Probably the more humid conditions that prevail near the Aravallis prevented the extension of aridity towards the east and the Ganges Valley. It is noteworthy that, wherever there are gaps in this range, sand has advanced to the east of it.”
1172. ^ Prasad 1974, p. 372, ” The topography of the Indian Desert is dominated by the Aravalli Ranges on its eastern border, which consist largely of tightly folded and highly metamorphosed Archaean rocks.”
1173. ^ Fisher 2018, p. 83, ” East of the lower Indus lay the inhospitable Rann of Kutch and Thar Desert. East of the upper Indus lay the more promising but narrow corridor between the Himalayan foothills on the north and the Thar Desert and Aravalli Mountains on the south. At the strategic choke point, just before reaching the fertile, well-watered Gangetic plain, sat Delhi. On this site, where life giving streams running off the most northern spur of the rocky Aravalli ridge flowed into the Jumna river, and where the war-horse and war-elephant trade intersected, a series of dynasties built fortified capitals.”
1174. ^ Mcgrail et al. 2003, p. 257.
1175. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023, p. 8.
1176. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023, pp. 9–10.
1177. ^ Ministry of Information and Broadcasting 2007, p. 1.
1178. ^ Jump up to:^a b Kumar et al. 2006.
1179. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023, p. 15.
1180. ^ Duff 1993, p. 353.
1181. ^ Basu & Xavier 2017, p. 78.
1182. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023, p. 16.
1183. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023, p. 17.
1184. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023, p. 12.
1185. ^ Dikshit & Schwartzberg 2023, p. 13.
1186. ^ Jump up to:^a b Chang 1967, pp. 391–394.
1187. ^ Posey 1994, p. 118.
1188. ^ Wolpert 2003, p. 4.
1189. ^ Heitzman & Worden 1996, p. 97.
1190. ^ Sharma, Vibha (15 June 2020). “Average temperature over India projected to rise by 4.4 degrees Celsius: Govt report on impact of climate change in country”. The Tribune. Retrieved 30 November 2020.
1191. ^ Sethi, Nitin (3 February 2007). “Global warming: Mumbai to face the heat”. The Times of India. Retrieved 11 March 2021.
1192. ^ Gupta, Vivek; Jain, Manoj Kumar (2018). “Investigation of multi-model spatiotemporal mesoscale drought projections over India under climate change scenario”. Journal of Hydrology. 567: 489–509. Bibcode:2018JHyd..567..489G. doi:10.1016/j.jhydrol.2018.10.012. ISSN 0022-1694. S2CID 135053362.
1193. ^ Megadiverse Countries, Biodiversity A–Z, UN Environment World Conservation Monitoring Centre, retrieved 17 October 2021
1194. ^ “Animal Discoveries 2011: New Species and New Records” (PDF). Zoological Survey of India. 2012. Archived from the original (PDF) on 16 January 2013. Retrieved 20 July 2012.
1195. ^ Jump up to:^a b Puri, S. K., “Biodiversity Profile of India”, ces.iisc.ernet.in, archived from the original on 21 November 2011, retrieved 20 June 2007
1196. ^ Basak 1983, p. 24.
1197. ^ Jump up to:^a b Venkataraman, Krishnamoorthy; Sivaperuman, Chandrakasan (2018), “Biodiversity Hotspots in India”, in Sivaperuman, Chandrakasan; Venkataraman, Krishnamoorthy (eds.), Indian Hotspots: Vertebrate Faunal Diversity, Conservation and Management, Springer, p. 5, ISBN 978-981-10-6605-4
1198. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Jha, Raghbendra (2018), Facets of India’s Economy and Her Society Volume II: Current State and Future Prospects, Springer, p. 198, ISBN 978-1-349-95342-4
1199. ^ Jump up to:^a b c “Forest Cover in States/UTs in India in 2019”. Forest Research Institute via National Informatics Centre. Retrieved 16 October 2021.
1200. ^ Tritsch 2001, pp. 11–12.
1201. ^ Tritsch 2001, p. 12India has two natural zones of thorn forest, one in the rain shadow area of the Deccan Plateau east of the Western Ghats, and the other in the western part of the Indo-Gangetic plain. Growth is limited only by moisture availability in these areas, so with irrigation the fertile alluvial soil of Punjab and Haryana has been turned into India’s prime agricultural area. Much of the thorn forest covering the plains probably had savannah-like features now no longer visible.
1202. ^ Goyal, Anupam (2006), The WTO and International Environmental Law: Towards Conciliation, Oxford University Press, p. 295, ISBN 978-0-19-567710-2 Quote: “The Indian government successfully argued that the medicinal neem tree is part of traditional Indian knowledge. (page 295)”
1203. ^ Hughes, Julie E. (2013), Animal Kingdoms, Harvard University Press, p. 106, ISBN 978-0-674-07480-4, At same time, the leafy pipal trees and comparative abundance that marked the Mewari landscape fostered refinements unattainable in other lands.
1204. ^ Ameri, Marta (2018), “Letting the Pictures Speak: An Image-Based Approach to the Mythological and Narrative Imagery of the Harappan World”, in Ameri, Marta; Costello, Sarah Kielt; Jamison, Gregg; Scott, Sarah Jarmer (eds.), Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia, Cambridge University Press, pp. 156–157, ISBN 978-1-108-17351-3 Quote: “The last of the centaurs has the long, wavy, horizontal horns of a markhor, a human face, a heavy-set body that appears bovine, and a goat tail … This figure is often depicted by itself, but it is also consistently represented in scenes that seem to reflect the adoration of a figure in a pipal tree or arbour and which may be termed ritual. These include fully detailed scenes like that visible in the large ‘divine adoration’ seal from Mohenjo-daro.”
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1215. ^ Tritsch 2001, p. 15Before it was so heavily settled and intensively exploited, the Punjab was dominated by thorn forest interspersed by rolling grasslands which were grazed on by millions of Blackbuck, accompanied by their dominant predator, the Cheetah. Always keen hunters, the Moghul princes kept tame cheetahs which were used to chase and bring down the Blackbuck. Today the Cheetah is extinct in India and the severely endangered Blackbuck no longer exists in the Punjab.
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1266. ^ (a) Guyot-Rechard, Berenice (2017), Shadow States: India, China and the Himalayas, 1910–1962, Cambridge University Press, p. 235, ISBN 978-1-107-17679-9, By invading NEFA, the PRC did not just aim to force a humiliated India to recognise its possession of the Aksai Chin. It also hoped to get, once and for all, the upper hand in their shadowing competition.
      (b) Chubb, Andrew (2021), “The Sino-Indian Border Crisis: Chinese Perceptions of Indian Nationalism”, in Golley, Jane; Jaivan, Linda; Strange, Sharon (eds.), Crisis, Australian National University Press, pp. 231–232, ISBN 978-1-76046-439-4, The ensuing cycle of escalation culminated in the 1962 Sino-Indian border war in which Mao Zedong’s troops overran almost the entire state of Arunachal Pradesh in the eastern sector before unilaterally withdrawing, as if to underline the insult; most of the war’s several thousand casualties were Indian. The PLA’s decisive victories in the 1962 war not only humiliated the Indian Army, they also entrenched a status quo in Ladakh that was highly unfavourable for India, in which China controls almost all of the disputed territory. A nationalistic press and commentariat have kept 1962 vivid in India’s popular consciousness.
      (c) Lintner, Bertil (2018), China’s India War: Collision Course on the Roof of the World, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-909163-8, Lin Biao was put in charge of the operation and that alliance between Mao and his loyal de facto chief of the PLA made the attack on India possible. With China’s ultimate victory in the war, Mao’s ultra-leftist line had won in China; whatever critical voices that were left in the Party after all the purges fell silent.
      (d) Medcalf, Rory (2020), Indo-Pacific Empire: China, America and the contest for the world’s pivotal, Manchester University Press, ISBN 978-1-5261-5077-6, From an Indian perspective, the China-India war of 1962 was a shocking betrayal of the principles of co-operation and coexistence: a surprise attack that humiliated India and personally broke Nehru.
      (e) Ganguly, Sumit (1997), The Crisis in Kashmir: Portents of War, Hope of Peace, Woodrow Wilson Center Press and Cambridge University Press, p. 44, ISBN 978-0-521-65566-8, In October 1962 India suffered the most humiliating military debacle in its post-independence history, at the hands of the Chinese People’s Liberation Army (PLA). The outcome of this conflict had far-reaching consequences for Indian foreign and defence policies. The harsh defeat that the Chinese PLA had inflicted on the Indian Army called into question some of the most deeply held precepts of Nehru’s foreign and defence policies.
      (f) Raghavan, Srinath (2019), “A Missed Opportunity? The Nehru-Zhou Enlai Summit of 1960”, in Bhagavan, Manu (ed.), India and the Cold War, University of North Carolina Press, p. 121, ISBN 978-1-4696-5117-0, The ‘forward policy’ adopted by India to prevent the Chinese from occupying territory claimed by them was undertaken in the mistaken belief that Beijing would be cautious in dealing with India owing to Moscow’s stance on the dispute and its growing proximity to India. These misjudgments would eventually culminate in India’s humiliating defeat in the war of October–November 1962.
1267. ^ Brahma Chellaney (2006). Asian Juggernaut: The Rise of China, India, and Japan. HarperCollins. p. 195. ISBN 978-8172236502. Indeed, Beijing’s acknowledgement of Indian control over Sikkim seems limited to the purpose of facilitating trade through the vertiginous Nathu-la Pass, the scene of bloody artillery duels in September 1967 when Indian troops beat back attacking Chinese forces.
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1444. ^ “More than 63 million women ‘missing’ in India, statistics show”. Associated Press via The Guardian. 30 January 2018. Retrieved 17 November 2019. Quote: “More than 63 million women are “missing” statistically across India, and more than 21 million girls are unwanted by their families, government officials say. The skewed ratio of men to women is largely the result of sex-selective abortions, and better nutrition and medical care for boys, according to the government’s annual economic survey, which was released on Monday. In addition, the survey found that “families where a son is born are more likely to stop having children than families where a girl is born”.
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1453. ^ “Study in India”. studyinindia.gov.in. Retrieved 18 October 2021.
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1458. ^ Jump up to:^a b c d Tarlo 1996, p. 26
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1460. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Alkazi, Roshen (2002), “Evolution of Indian Costume as a result of the links between Central Asia and India in ancient and medieval times”, in Rahman, Abdur (ed.), India’s Interaction with China, Central and West Asia, Oxford University Press, pp. 464–484, ISBN 978-0-19-565789-0
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1462. ^ Stevenson, Angus; Waite, Maurice (2011), Concise Oxford English Dictionary: Book & CD-ROM Set, Oxford University Press, p. 774, ISBN 978-0-19-960110-3
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1464. ^ Shukla, Pravina (2015), The Grace of Four Moons: Dress, Adornment, and the Art of the Body in Modern India, Indiana University Press, p. 71, ISBN 978-0-253-02121-2
1465. ^ Jump up to:^{a b c d e} Dwyer, Rachel (2014), Bollywood’s India: Hindi Cinema as a Guide to Contemporary India, Reaktion Books, pp. 244–245, ISBN 978-1-78023-304-8
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1467. ^ Jump up to:^a b c Davidson, Alan (2014), The Oxford Companion to Food, Oxford University Press, p. 409, ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7
1468. ^ Davidson, Alan (2014), The Oxford Companion to Food, Oxford University Press, p. 161, ISBN 978-0-19-967733-7, Chapatis are made from finely milled whole-wheat flour, called chapati flour or atta, and water. The dough is rolled into thin rounds which vary in size from region to region and then cooked without fat or oil on a slightly curved griddle called a tava.
1469. ^ Tamang, J. P.; Fleet, G. H. (2009), “Yeasts Diversity in Fermented Foods and Beverages”, in Satyanarayana, T.; Kunze, G. (eds.), Yeast Biotechnology: Diversity and Applications, Springer, p. 180, ISBN 978-1-4020-8292-4, Idli is an acid-leavened and steamed cake made by bacterial fermentation of a thick batter made from coarsely ground rice and dehulled black gram. Idli cakes are soft, moist and spongy, have desirable sour flavour, and is eaten as breakfast in South India. Dosa batter is very similar to idli batter, except that both the rice and black gram are finely grounded. The batter is thinner than that of idli and is fried as a thin, crisp pancake and eaten directly in South India.
1470. ^ Jhala, Angma Day (2015), Royal Patronage, Power and Aesthetics in Princely India, Routledge, p. 70, ISBN 978-1-317-31657-2, With the ascent of the Mughal Empire in sixteenth-century India, Turkic, Persian and Afghan traditions of dress, ‘architecture and cuisine’ were adopted by non-Muslim indigenous elites in South Asia. In this manner, Central Asian cooking merged with older traditions within the subcontinent, to create such signature dishes as biryani (a fusion of the Persian pilau and the spice-laden dishes of Hindustan), and the Kashmiri meat stew of Rogan Josh. It not only generated new dishes and entire cuisines, but also fostered novel modes of eating. Such newer trends included the consumption of Persian condiments, which relied heavily on almonds, pastries and quince jams, alongside Indian achars made from sweet limes, green vegetables and curds as side relishes during Mughlai meals.
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1479. ^ Srinivasan, Radhika; Jermyn, Leslie; Lek, Hui Hui (2001), India, Times Books International, p. 109, ISBN 978-981-232-184-8 Quote: “Girls in India usually play jump rope, or hopscotch, and five stones, tossing the stones up in the air and catching them in many different ways … the coconut-plucking contests, groundnut-eating races, … of rural India.”
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1485. ^ “What India was crazy about: Hockey first, Cricket later, Football, Kabaddi now?”. India Today. 14 August 2017.
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